CHAPTER 12 how they interact with each other and with their

surrounding environment.
Biodiversity - multitude of living organisms and how
they interact with each other and their environment Thus, this includes the interdependence or
interrelationships of all living things in the areas
Gene - unit of heredity where they live called habitats, whether artificial or
natural.
Species - group of interbreeding organisms with the
same structures Living organisms adapt to the physical
characteristics of these areas and develop their
Niche - the physical environment to which a species niche, the ecological role they play in the
has become adapted as environment.
well as its role as producer and consumer of food
resources Biodiversity serves as sources of food and energy
in addition to water and clean air. Through
Habitat - the area where an organism lives biodiversity, we have access to natural services like
water purification, soil fertility, waste disposal, pest
Speciation - formation of new organism control and aesthetic pleasure (e.g., Hibiscus rosa-
sinensis, Jasminum samba, Rosa sp., etc.).
Extinction - the total disappearance of a species
Biodiversity also enables the discovery and use of
plants as medicines, microorganisms as sources of
What is biodiversity? antibiotics, and marine animals for various
Biodiversity or biological diversity is a vast compounds of industrial use.
concept that means a lot of things.
The three components of biodiversity include:
First, that living organisms are numerous, from the • diversity of genes or genetic diversity,
minute to the largest creatures and are composed • diversity of number of species or species
of several species or groups; these organisms diversity and
interact with one another and with nonliving things. • variety of ecosystems or community or
ecological diversity (Braun & Amman, 2002).
Second, living organisms are abundant in habitats
supplying all the foods and requirements that they
need. Genetic Diversity

Third, organisms have different growth and - variation or differences in the genes of a species of
metabolic characteristics unique to a particular individuals.
group and variable reproductive patterns; some
have more species while others have less. Genes - segments of DNA which dictate the traits or
characteristics of an organism. Considered as a
And fourth, that biodiversity is essential to human variation in small scale, its impact however, is on a
survival. The latter is the most important because large scale.
without diversity, life can be dull and boring; with
scarce resources, there would not be enough food Gene differences contribute remarkably to the
and medicines, and the like. adaptive potential of the species that can
more importantly lead to microevolution.
Biodiversity is the variety of life in the simplest term.
This variation enables one species to adapt to
It is the contraction of two words - biological changing environment, and the likelihood of
diversity, which refers to the number, variety, and perpetuation of a new population.
variability of living organisms.
Hogs, for example, are of the same species but of
It includes not just species but ecosystems-the different breeds.
multitude of living organisms across all levels and

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Gumamela (Hibiscus rosasinesis) are composed of
different varieties. Insects belong to different orders. Community or Ecological Diversity
Saccharomuces cerevisiae is a specific group of Community diversity or ecological diversity refers to
yeasts but may exhibit different metabolic a variety of ecosystems in a given region.
characteristics.
Ecosystem is a biological community including all of
A fungal pathogen may either infect a specific single the abiotic factors that affect them (Mölles, Jr.,
crop or different varieties of it at varying degrees. 2008). Aquatic ecosystems may be freshwater,
marine, estuary and coastal. Terrestrial ecosystem
The virulence genes vary from one organism to may be grassland, forest, desert and the like. These
another or from one species to another. ecosystems cater a wide range of species
population that interact with one another forming a
A crop may be grouped differentially based on gene community. Their survival and interactions are
markers which is now a trend in studying genetic mediated and influenced by a variety of nonliving or
diversity. abiotic factors such as air, water, temperature,
humidity, pH, light intensity, current and many more.
Why are these so? These boil down to differences in
DNA sequence and the percentage of nucleotides Ecosystem diversity is of huge importance from the
present. point of interesting species and complexity of niches.
An ecosystem also interacts with another ecosystem
Species Diversity in a specific overlapping region known as ecotone,
and thus, may affect each other's sustainability.
The second component of biodiversity is the
diversity of number of species or species diversity. Importance of Biodiversity
Biodiversity affects humans on various aspects:
This involves a combination of species number (i.e., economy, health and culture, aesthetic and
species richness) and their relative abundance in a environmental issues.
particular area (i.e., species evenness). The latter
is a measure of whether a particular ecosystem is The fundamental importance of biodiversity is that it
dominated by a single species or if similar number of is our source of foods, clothing, shelter and
individuals is present. medicines. Biodiversity is also a source of raw
materials for industrial activities. Humans enjoy
Evenness may either be high (i.e., all species are different products and goods, clean air and water,
represented by the same number of individuals) or soil and water resources due to biodiversity. Life
low (i.e., some species are represented by many would be so boring if there is no variation around us.
individuals while others are not).
Two fundamental sciences, taxonomy and
Species is a group of interbreeding organisms with ecology, generate knowledge and information to
similar structures. Around fully understand the importance of biodiversity for
the world, about 1.5 million species are known but human survival. However, there are some limitations
according to scientists and taxonomists, this is just a like:
fraction of what is currently existing (Convention on
Biological Diversity). 1. Biodiversity conservation strategies focused on
research and policy on global scale without too much
New species are added every dav. It is believed that effect on local diversity.
insects are the most diverse. A gram of soil is 2. Lack of site-specifie data on species composition
composed of different species of microbes. A drop of communities.
of sea water may hold a 3. Biodiversity studies lacking in taxonomic
number of planktonic species. Birds, rabbits, precision.
alligators, fishes, dragonflies and cats are 4. Few taxonomists.
all different species. 5. Insufficient biodiversity inventory and
assessment.

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Nevertheless, the benefits of biodiversity still share The Role of Evolution in Biodiversity
in the pie of the economy. Tourists come and go to Evolution is how the genetic composition of species
enjoy diverse Philippine flora and fauna; natural changes over time. It is the underlying mechanism
products and medicines from plants and of biodiversity. Evolution may be microevolution or
actinomycetes abound; soil and water resources are macroevolution. Microevolution is the evolution
conserved; and water flow is regulated in various below the species level while macroevolution is the
communities. type that gives rise to new species or larger groups
such as new genera, family, class or phyla.
Status of Philippine Biodiversity
The Philippines being a tropical and archipelagic Evolution may happen through artificial selection or
country has very rich and diverse flora and fauna by natural selection. In artificial selection, humans
(National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, determine which individuals breed as exemplified by
2002). Considered as a biodiversity hotspot, the the specific crops that are bred and varieties come
country attracts tourists and scientists to come over out. The environment mav also determine which
and examine its natural resources. Though this organisms or individuals survive and perpetuate.
poses an advantage to our national economy, on the This is what we call natural selection.
other side of the fence, this is critically threatening
our local environment. Allowing the public to observe By natural selection, there are several points to
and investigate our treasures can lead to the remember. First, that individuals vary and variations
eventual disturbance and, worse, exploitation of could be inherited for several generations. The
these natural resources especially if they are not variations may confer advantages to the next
given protection. generations so that the individuals have better
capacity to adapt and survive. Adaptations afford the
The 2014 data show that there are 211 wild organism a better chance to survive in its
fauna/animals and 526 wild flora/plants which are surroundings.
threatened.
These special features have evolved over long
periods of time. The combination of bright orange
Techniques in Conserving Biodiversity and black on a monarch butterfly is an adaptation to
warn potential predators that the butterfly is
1. Cell and tissue culture allow the poisonous and prevent it from being eaten
propagation/multiplication of organisms (https://defenders.org/monarch-butterfly/basic-
at a rapid pace. Definitely, this is one way of facts). Some organisms may also exhibit
conserving our resources and camouflage - the ability to blend with surroundings
rescue the endangered species. and a common example of an adaptation.

2. Cryopreservation technology. Evolution may also be slow or rapid depending on

Cryopreservation is a non-lethal storage of the rate of environmental change, amount of genetic
organelles, cells, tissues or bone biological variation in the species, population size involved and
constructs at ultra low temperature. This technology the generation time of particular species. In the
enables the conservation of germplasm. In the course of evolution, speciation and extinction may
Philippines, this is currently used by the Philippine happen and dictate biodiversity. Speciation may be
Carabao Center. allopatric, if new species are created by geographic
or reproductive isolation, or sympatric, one species
3. Advances in molecular biology and genetics evolves into two species without being
have taken a stronghold in analyzing individual geographically isolated.
strains of an organism, identify species and predict
future phenotypes. This is a very important Extinction is the dying out or termination of a
technique in maintaining biodiversity. species. This occurs due to environmental forces
like global change, habitat fragmentation, and
overexploitation of species or because of
evolutionary changes in their members like
inbreeding, poor reproduction, superior competition
and decline in the number of populations.

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CHAPTER 13 GMO Several organisms have been genetically modified
since the introduction of technologies and discovery
GMO - genetically modified organism of the DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) double helix
structure.
Vector - usually a plasmid or cosmid that accepts
foreign DNA and serve as vehicle for transformation GM crops were first commercialized in 1996 and
only from countries that planted transgenic crops to
Plasmid - extrachromosomal element capable of about 11 million hectares (Brankow & Love, 2015).
independent replication In 2011, the area had expanded to 160 million
hectares in 29 countries. Soybeans, maize, cotton,
Cloning/Genetic engineering - technique used to and canola remain to be the leading GM crops.
alter or move genetic material (genes) of living cells Other crops include eggplant, Jatropha, rice, sugar
beets, cassava, papaya, banana, tomatoes,
Restriction enzyme - enzyme that cuts the DNA potatoes, squash, peas and alfalfa. GM animals, on
the other hand, include fishes, cows, chickens, pigs,
What are GMOs? etc.
Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are
organisms with foreign genes incorporated into their The GM crops are listed below (Phillips, 2008;
genome such that they exhibit different but desirable Fridovich-Keil et al., n.d,; Johnson & O'Connor,
properties that do not occur naturally by mating 2015; Center for Ecogenetics and Environmental
and/or natural recombination (Key, 2008). Health).

The foreign genes may come from bacteria, viruses, CORN

insects, animals or even humans. These genes are Corn was first genetically modified with the insertion
carefully studied and selected to achieve the goal of of toxin gene from the bacterium, Bacillus
improving a particular organism or make this thuringiensis. With the commercialization of Bt corn,
organism a vehicle for faster and efficient an increase in corn production was realized because
manufacturing and delivery of a product. The of its resistance to the attack of corn borer.
modification can be transgenic, whereby the
organism contains DNA from another species, or COTTON
cisgenic, whereby it contains DNA from a member of Almost half of cottons grown in the world have been
the same species but doesn't occur naturally genetically modified to resist pests and pesticides.
(Sutherland, 2014). The latter form is generally However, it was reported to have had devastating
viewed as a safer practice, although there are results in Indian agriculture. In the Philippines,
concerns for all types of genetic modification. GMOs experiments to develop local Bt corn variety are
can include plants, animals, and microorganisms. being performed to prevent bollworm damage.
GMOs have been approved by regulatory agencies
for commercial production and consumption, while JATROPHA
others are currently undergoing regulatory Jatropha seeds are similar to palm oil. It can be used
evaluation (Center for Ecogenetics and as biofuel and a high source of protein for livestock.
Environmental Health). Still other GMOs are in However, planting Jatropha, has caused destruction
experimental stages and confined to scientific of the native plants.
laboratory research.
RICE
The Making of GMOs, Steps in Cloning Golden rice is the genetically modified rice
Cloning requires a source of DNA or a donor containing beta carotene a precursor of vitamin A.
organism. The DNA is cut with restriction enzyme The golden rice is still in the research stage but once
and is ligated to a vector, usually a plasmid, it becomes a developed variety and commercialized
previously cut with another restriction enzyme many Filipinos will benefit from it. In relation, studies
compatible with the first enzyme used. After ligation, are being done to address the pervasive and
the chimeric molecules are transformed in persistent Vitamin A deficiency problem and at the
competent cells (usually Escherichia coli) and then same time make Golden Rice more profitable to
screened for the presence of genes of interest. farmers by adding tungro and bacterial leaf blight
(BLB) resistance to this GM crop.

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SOY APPPLE
More than 90 percent of soybeans grown in the Scientists are now able to deactivate the gene for
United States are genetically modified to be polyphenol oxidase (PPO), an enzyme which causes
herbicide resistant. the browning of apples.

SUGAR BEETS PEAS

Sugar beets were engineered to grow faster and to GM peas were created by inserting kidney beans
be more resistant to weeds. However a federal judge genes into the peas DNA resulting to the production
put a halt on processing GMO sugar beets due to of protein with pesticidal ability.
failure of USDA to present an Environmental Impact
Statement (EIS). Many environmentalists and Yellow crookneck squash or zucchini GM zucchini
researchers are concerned that GMO sugar beets are resistant to viruses
could have serious impact on the environment and
other crops. ALFALFA
GM alfalfa was developed to produce a crop that will
CASSAVA survive exposure to glyphosate herbicide.
Cassava is a starchy plant like potato that is
consumed by many people across the globe like
Africa. The first GMO cassava plant was engineered Impacts of GMOs
in 1955. Cassava was supposed to be virus and pest Defined and known useful genes when inserted into
resistant but farmers reported that in few years the an organism will definitely affect the growth pattern,
GMO cassava lose their anti-virus resistant quality. behavior and products of the said organism in a
short span of time saving a lot of pesos in conducting
PAPAYA research when compared to traditional breeding.
Papaya, also known as Carica papaya L., has
Caribbean coast of Central America as the point of GMOs have been around for several years and their
origin. It was first genetically modified in Hawaii and impacts are already felt. Through the GM
introduced to the market in 1999. The GM papaya technologies, "designer crops" can be produced.
lines were developed to resist infection by papaya These are crops with more nutrients, pesticide
ringspot virus (PRSV). resistant, insect resistant, require less inputs to grow
and produce more yield (Vasa, 2013; Huesing &
BANANA English, 2018).
Majority of bananas in the US are genetically
modified. Some agricultural soils are saline. This condition
hamper the growth of crops because they can not
EGGPLANT grow well or sometimes the crops are unable to
The first GM eggplant (Bt eggplant) in South and grow. Thus, there is a need to research to come up
Southeast Asia, the new pest-resistant eggplant, with salt tolerant organisms.
was developed by the Maharashtra Hybrid Seeds
Company (Mahyco) based in Jaina, India. In the The commercialization of Bt corn is very useful to
Philippines, Bt eggplant was developed to address farmers as they were able to have increased income
eggplant fruit and shoot borer (EFSB), Leucinodes (Huesing & English, 2018).
orboralis, using modern biotechnological
techniques. Growing GM plants allows the farmers to spend less
time and money in a good place in export market.
TOMATOES
Many tomatoes have been genetically modified in Papaya resistant to Papaya Ringspot Virus and with
US but GM tomatoes are banned in Europe. delaved ripening command GMO foods are also now
available in the market. In other parts of the world,
Flavr Savr is the first commercially grown GM tomato GMOs are considered to have health threats (Bawa
granted with a license for human consumption. & Anilakumar, 2012).
Produced by Calgene, a Californian company, it was
first sold in 1994 after the US Food and Drug The downside of farming with GMOs include
Administration (FDA) completed its evaluation. "creating super weeds" that have evolved a

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resistance to glyphosate, a common herbicide in - it is concerned with the world of ultraminute
GMO food production. particles dominated by forces of chemistry and
Frequently Asked Questions About GMOs physics that cannot be applied at the human-scale
level.
Though GMOs are commercially available for - processes that provide goods and/or services
several years now, there are still several questions which are derived from matter at the nanometer level
asked by the consumers or need to be addresses. - principles of engineering the structure of matter at
Some of them are as follows: the molecular level

1. Are GMOs safe? US National Nanotechnology Institute (NNI)

2. How are GMOs produced? - nanotechnology involves “research and technology
3. What are the major issues that need to be development at the atomic, molecular, or
addressed in the regulations of macromolecular levels, in the length scale of
GMOs? approximately 1 to 100 nm range, to provide a
4. Which types /varieties of GMOs are already fundamental understanding of phenomena and
applied in ASEAN Member materials at the nanoscale and to create and use
countries? structures, devices, and systems that have novel
properties and functions because of their small
CHAPTER 14 and/or intermediate size
THE NANO WORLD
Materials = nanomaterials
NANOTECHNOLOGY - a new era of scientific
research which focuses on particles too minute to be Nanoparticles can be produced from nearly any
seen but with impact interacting with other fields of chemicals (in theory)
sciences.
Transition metals, silicon, carbon (single walled
NANOMATERIALS - minute particles carbon nanotubes; fullerenes)

NANOETHICS - study of the ethical and social Metal oxides (zinc dioxide; titanium dioxide)
dimensions of nanotechnology
Engineered nanoparticles also exist as nanocrystals
composed of a number of compounds such as
silicon and metals (quantum dots)
The word NANOTECHNOLOGY is derived from the
words nano and technology; According to NNI, there are four generations of
nanotechnology
nano = one-billionth of a quantity; represented as
1x10 raised to -9 or simply 10 raised to -9 1. passive nanostructures (size+physical property)
2. active nanodevices (quantum properties)
technology = application of scientific knowledge for 3. systems of nanosystems (systems of
society’s practical needs and improvements nanodevices)
4. molecular nanosystems molecular machines and
- new category of technology involving both basic manufacture)
and applied research intersecting with the fields of
computer science and information technology, Potential Applications of Nanotechnology
medical technology, agriculture, life sciences,
engineering, chemistry, physics, and mathematics. 1. Energy storage, production, and conversion
- carbon nanotubes on epoxy used to
- fast-growing area of science and research make windmills blades (stronger and
- some call it as “general purpose technology” lower weight; increased generated
because of global impacts and effects electricity)
- while others call it “enabling technology” because it
supports other technologies 2. Agricultural productivity and enhancement; vector
and pest detection and control

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 - nanosensors for faster detection of soil In the Philippines, possible applications are food and
quality agriculture, health and medicine, energy,
- plant health monitoring environment, ICT, and semiconductor.
- improved crop yield
- nanocapsules for efficient delivery of Nanotechnology-based Consumer Products
herbicides and drug for livestock 1. Fabric
3. Water treatment and remediation 2. Skin care products
- iron nanoparticles disperse throughout 3. Lithium ion batteries
the body of water and decompose the 4. Sporting goods
organic solvent in place 5. Paints
6. Atovi
4. Disease diagnosis and screening; drug delivery 7. Filtration set-up
systems
- nanotechnology-based diagnostic kits for CHAPTER 15
screening of diseases and systems of GENE THERAPY
drug delivery
- potential application of nanomedicine; GENE - a part of a cell in a living thing that controls
employing nanoparticles to deliver drugs, what it looks like, how it grows, and how it develops
heat, light or other substances to specific GENETIC DISORDERS - a disease that is caused
group of cells by an abnormality in an individual's DNA
- particles are manipulated so that they will VECTOR - an organism that does not cause
be attracted to diseased cells, thus disease itself, but which carry the DNA from one
allowing direct treatment host to another
DEFECTIVE GENE - a gene that does not work
5. Food processing and storage properly
- nanocomposite-based film crating for
food packaging An Introduction to Gene Therapy
- antimicrobial nanoemulsions for cleaning When a gene is mutated, the gene that codes for the
food equipment and packaging normal protein is altered and results in producing an
- nanotechnology-based sensors for abnormal or nonfunctional protein. Inheriting a
detecting food-borne pathogens defective gene can cause a wide range of disorders
such as cystic fibrosis and haemophilia. It can also
6. Air pollution and remediation cause susceptibility to some cancers.
- nanoclusters to reduce polluting by-
products to manufacture propylene oxide Genetic diseases are treated by repairing the
(used to produce plastics, paint, damaged gene responsible for the disease. Through
detergent, and brake fluid) the introduction of a normal copy of the gene instead
- Nanoscale metal particles such as FeO of using drugs or surgery, the cells can produce the
and Fe-NI particles together with iron normal functional protein. This technique is known
filings [Fe(O)] reduce chlorinated as gene therapy which was developed in 1972. This
solvents, pesticides, and PCBs which are is a promising treatment option, but had, so far,
major environmental contaminants limited success in treating human diseases (Misra,
2013; Verma & Somia, 1997).
7. Construction
- Construction activities will be a lot easier Gene therapy remains risky and is still under study
- Nanomolecules used in manufacturing to make sure that it will be safe and effective. It is
concrete, asphalt, glues, and housing currently being tested only for diseases that have no
surfaces other cures.

Delivery of Genes During Gene Therapy

There are several ways by which therapeutic genes

are delivered to the body. The cells with the
defective gene are taken from the body and the

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therapeutic gene is either 'spliced' or injected into 1. Ex vivo gene therapy
these cells. They are left to grow in the laboratory Genetic manipulation of cells is done outside the
and then returned into the person. The techniques body, which is well suited in targeting a specific
used are as follows. organ rather than treating the whole organism.

1. Use of vector. The therapeutic genes are Ex vivo gene therapy modifies the cells outside the
placed inside a harmless virus, where most body and transplanted back after selection and
of its own genes are removed or have been amplification. Genetic alteration is usually done by
deactivated. This virus works by entering into using a viral vector, which carries the corrected gene
the cell, taking over its DNA and forcing it to back to the patient's body. This can be very
produce more viruses. Similarly, a promising on bone marrow stem cells, liver cells,
deactivated virus can enter the specific cell blood vessel smooth muscle cells, tumor- infiltrating
and deliver the working gene. lymphocytes for cancer treatment, blindness,
treatment for leukemia and other cancers.
2. Use of stem cells. Stem cells are a class of
undifferentiated cells that are able to Advances in gene therapy are also achieved in
differentiate into specialized cell types. They corneal disease, glaucoma, retinal degeneration,
are the foundation for every organ and tissue stroke and multiple sclerosis through genetic
in the body. They have the potential to reprogramming of cells to replace degenerate cells
develop into cells with different functions. and through more refined neuroprotection,
Stem cells are then manipulated in the modulation of inflammation and replacement of
laboratory to accept new genes that can then deficient protein (Gregory-Evans, Bashar & Tan,
change their characteristics, Thus, when the 2012).
stem cells grow, divide, and differentiate they
already carry the manipulated genes that The major steps in ex vivo gene therapy involve the
would enable them to treat the disease. For isolation of the defective gene from the patient. The
example, specific gene that could resist isolated cells are then grown in cultures in the
chemotherapy might be inserted into a stem laboratory. Then, the therapeutic genes are inserted
cell that could make it better able to survive or introduced to the grown cell cultures using vectors
chemotherapy. (viruses, liposomes). The transformed cells are
selected from the nontransformants and grown in the
There are two types of gene therapy depending on laboratory. These selected cells are transplanted
the types of cells treated. into the patient.

If the cell to be treated is any cell of the body aside Advantage of ex vivo gene therapy includes the
from sperm or egg cell it is called somatic gene ability to target selectively specific cell types for
therapy. However, the effects of this method will not production of the gene of interest before engrafting
be passed on to the next generation, so the patient's the cells into the host.
offspring still have a chance of contracting the Moreover, the manipulated cells are
diseases. immunocompatible since they are collected from the
When the cells used are either sperm or egg cells, patient to avoid rejection. On the other hand, one of
the process is known as germline gene therapy the disadvantages is that it is an intrinsically more
(Chatterjee, Singh, & Saluja, 2013). invasive process than injection of vector
suspensions in in vivo gene therapy.
Somatic Gene Therapy
Somatic cell gene therapy is effective in treating 2. In vivo gene therapy
various kinds of diseases such as cystic fibrosis, In vivo gene therapy involves the direct introduction
muscular dystrophy, cancer, and certain infectious of the genetic materials into the human body. It can
diseases. The effectiveness of somatic gene therapy be applied to many tissues of the human body
is usually short-lived. including liver, muscle, skin, lung, spleen, brain,
blood cells, etc. The corrected genes are introduced
Somatic gene therapy can be broadly divided into by the viral or nonviral-based vectors into the patient.
two categories:

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Several factors that may affect in vivo gene therapy Problems Associated with Gene Therapy
include the following: While gene therapy is considered a breakthrough,
• Uptake of the therapeutic gene carrying there are also some problems associated with it as
vectors by the target cells Appropriate follows (Porteus, Connelly, & Pruett, 2006;
vectors should be used to efficiently deliver Chatterjee, Singh, & Saluja, 2013; Mali, 2013):
the corrected genes inside the target cells.
• Intracellular degradation The therapeutic 1. Gene therapy is short-lived in nature; thus,
gene should reach the target cell without patients will have to undergo multiple rounds
being degraded. of gene therapy.
• Expression ability of the gene 2. When the defense system is low due to
The therapeutic gene should be expressed in gene therapy there is a risk of further
the target cell. - stagnant advancement in the illness. Hence, there is a
difficulty for gene therapy to be repeated.
The physical methods for in vivo gene delivery are 3. Viral vectors could disrupt vital genes
mechanical, electrical, ultrasonic, hydrodynamic, resulting to another disease or predisposition
and laser-based energy. to cancer. They may also cause toxicity,
immune and inflammatory responses, and
In vivo gene delivery is simple because it is gene control and targeting. The deactivated
accomplished by the single step of direct vector viruses might target other cells as well as the
injection into the desired target organ and minimally intended cells.
invasive. However, it is also disadvantageous 4. There is an occurrence of multi-gene
because of nonspecificity of target cell infection. disorders, like heart disease, high blood
Various cell types including neurons, glia, and pressure, Alzheimer's disease, arthritis and
vascular cells can be infected when in vivo vectors diabetes.
are injected in the CNS. Another* disadvantage is its 5. Overexpression of delivered genes can
possibility to cause toxicity and elicit immune contribute to oncogenesis by removing
responses ("Difference Between Ex Vivo and In Vivo controls on normal cell cycle regulation. The
Gene Therapy." Difference Between. therapeutic gene might produce too much of
Com. April 26, 2017). the missing enzyme or protein, causing other
health problems.
GERMLINE GENE THERAPY 6. The therapeutic gene might be slotted into
the wrong spot.
In germline gene therapy, the cells are modified by 7. Other genes may be accidentally delivered
the introduction of functional genes into their to the cell.
genomes. This effect will be passed on to the 8. The deactivated virus may be contagious.
patient's children and subsequent generations
because gene transfer can occur in all cells of the
developing embryo. Thus, there is a possibility of
permanently removing an inherited disorder from a CHAPTER 16
family line. However, it is not allowed to be done in CLIMATE CHANGE AND THE ENERGY CRISIS
humans, because of ethical issues and fear of
altering the human genes. Creating "super" human
beings or "architectured" human beings and the WEATHER - the condition of the atmosphere like
ethical issue of playing "gods" are additional heat, dryness, sunshine, wind and rain at a given
restrictions. This technology should not be used for place at a given time
non-disease conditions such as functional
enhancement or "cosmetic purposes." Examples of CLIMATE - the weather condition occurring in a
this are treatment of baldness by gene transfer into region for a longer period of
follicle cells, increasing body size using growth
hormone gene, or increasing muscle mass using CLIMATE CHANGE - the changes in the regional or
dystrophin gene (National Human Genome global climate pattern brought about by the increase
Research Institute. www.genome.gov). of atmospheric temperature

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RENEWABLE ENERGY - the energy supply that are the reinforcing feedback process that is happening
replenished through natural processes to our environment.

Several environmental changes have been recorded

Weather, Climate and the Causes of Climate in more advanced countries with respect to the
Change increase of global temperature (Figure 16.3) as
reported by the Australian Academy of Sciences in
The overall state of the atmosphere that is 2015.
influenced by marine environments, terrestrial areas
and ice sheets in a given period of time is referred to They are as follows:
as weather. Weather condition evident in a region for • Mountain glaciers have been shrinking and
a period of time is climate. In the Philippines, there contributing to global sea level rise since about 1850
are four existing climate zones where varying wet but accelerated melting has significantly started in
and dry condition exist throughout the year. the 1990's.

The change in the regional or global climate pattern • Increased discharge of melted ice into the
brought about by the increase of atmospheric Earth's ocean due to the disappearance of
temperature is known as climate change. the Greenland and West Antarctic Ice Sheets
since 1990.
• Sea ice cover and thickness have reduced
significantly since 1987.
Climate Map of the Philippines • Shifts in the ocean and wind currents in the
Type I - Two pronounced seasons: Dry from Southern Ocean have changed the areas
November to April, wet during rest of the year. covered by ice due to constant warming. The
thinning of the ozone layer has been linked
Type II - No dry season with a very pronounced with the strengthening circumpolar winds
rainfall from November to April and wet during rest around
of the year. • An increased amount of water vapor in the
atmosphere most especially during warmer
Type III - Seasons are not very pronounced; season has been recorded since 1980.
relatively dry from November to April, wet during rest • Ocean and fresh water surface dilution
of the year. occurred due to increased rainfall in some
parts of the world. Even ocean currents have
Type IV - Rainfall is more or less evenly distributed changed in response to the variations in
through the year. surface winds, ocean temperature and
ocean saltiness. These changes include a
Changes in the climatic condition were observed southward shift of the Antarctic Circumpolar
over the past millions of years due to certain natural Current and increasing southward
processes such as volcanic eruptions and the penetration of the East Australian Current.
variation of Sun's radiation. Studies have considered • Organismal shifts in distribution and life
that the sun's energy is the ultimate driver of climate cycles coincide with the variations in
on earth as sunlight is reflected by the different temperature around the globe.
surfaces of the planet.
Human activities were considered as major
Over the past century, the increase in greenhouse contributors to climate change. CO, concentration in
gases concentration most especially carbon dioxide the atmosphere increased from 280 to 396 ppm for
(CO,), chlorofluorocarbon (CFC), methane (CH,) the periods 1800 to
and nitrous oxide (N,O) has contributed greatly to 2013. Constant exchanges of CO, occur between
climate change. The rise of sea level and the the atmosphere, terrestrial and marine environment
decrease of global ice sheets and glaciers have as plants grow, die, decay and as the carbon-rich
been attributed to such condition. Increased water circulates in the ocean. This carbon cycling
concentration of CO, and CH, in the atmosphere (Figure 16.4) was considered to be in balance and in
reduces the amount of light that is reflected back into a steady state until when human-induced CO,
space (Figure 16.2). These conditions have shown emissions started in the 19th century.

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Most events that contributed to the increase in CO, The drier condition in majority of the areas in Africa
concentration are the excessive combustion of fossil could pose a more severe water and food shortage
fuel, manufacture of cement and deforestation. The to about 220 million people by 2020. Agricultural
dependence of the global growth in energy production could be compromised since it is heavily
consumption and utilization in connection with the dependent on good water source to grow crops and
growing economic activities most especially in Asian support livestock needs. With the projected
countries have increased fossil fuel combustion to worsening condition, human health is expected to
about 3.2% per year from 2000 to 2010. suffer from several diseases like malaria, dengue
fever, meningitis, cholera, etc. because they are
Although a steady increase of CO, concentration has transmitted by vectors.
been noted, yearly variations were recorded and
attributed to different weather patterns and by some In general, Africa has a low adaptive capacity to the
volcanic activities around the globe. Their temporary impact of climate change due to some of the nation's
reducing effects were identified as they promote existing developmental challenges like low GDP per
plant* growth and as volcanic haze cools the capita, widespread endemic poverty, weak
atmosphere. institutions, low levels of education and low levels of
primary health.
Looking at how nature cycles CO, over the last 50
years brought us into the understanding that 25% of ASIA
the total emission were absorbed by the oceans, Increase in the mean global temperature is expected
30% were - taken up on land and the remaining 45% in central Asia, the Tibetan plateau, northern,
were just accumulated in the atmosphere (Figure eastern and southern Asia which leads to snow and
16.5 and 16.6). From these findings, the increased ice reduction in the Himalayan and Tibetan Glaciers.
absorption of the world's ocean has been linked with This would lead to increase in the number and
events like ocean acidification and coral bleaching. severity of glacial melt-related floods, slope
Both conditions not only harm ocean dwellers but destabilization followed by decrease in river flows as
also pose a great threat to human food supplies. glaciers disappear. Increasing temperature would
also increase the frequency and intensity of extreme
GLOBAL IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE events such as El Niño (drought during summer
months) and La Niña (intense precipitation). This
The United Nations Framework Convention on. would definitely affect the agricultural productivity in
Climate Change (UNFCCC, 2007) emphasized that some areas. In addition, Asian health conditions may
impacts and vulnerability to climate vary between be at risk of increased morbidity and mortality due to
regions of the globe. Some of these regions include heat stress, severe cholera and the changing
Africa, Asia, Latin America and some Small Islands. dynamics of vector borne diseases.
Below is the summarized information regarding the
impact, vulnerability and adaptive capacity of each In terrestrial ecosystems, rapid increase in the
region to climate change based on the studies incidence of species extinction is projected as
conducted by Boko et. al (2007), Christensen et al. climate change and habitat fragmentation increases
(2007), Cruz et al. (2007), Magrin et al. (2007) and due to the synergistic impact of human activities and
Mimura et al. (2007). natural phenomenon. A more and serious condition
can be felt in the coastal areas, as millions of coastal
AFRICA inhabitants are affected by a rise in sea level and an
It is expected that the temperature in this continent increase in the intensity of tropical cyclones.
will increase by about 1.5% than the global average
that will result to a warmer subtropical region. In The Philippines is considered one of the most
addition, decreased annual rainfall is expected in affected countries by climate change. Aside from the
several areas such as the Mediterranean Africa, fact that we cannot evade global impacts, our
Northern Sahara and Southern Africa which may country also lacks the natural barriers such as coral
trigger desertification in many areas. reefs and mangrove ecosystems due to the recorded
On the contrary, it is expected that increased annual accumulated 50% reduction since 1918. This natural
mean rainfall is expected in Bast Africa and in the structure serves as buffers for typhoons before they
dry Sahel area. hit the coastal communities. Geography of the

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Philippines also shows each area could face unique seen to be very much dependent on different
conditions in relation to the impact of climate technologies that make life convenient. From the
change. smartphones and laptops intended for
communication and education, television and
Adaptive capacity in the ASEAN region varies entertainment sets at home, electric stoves and
between countries depending on their social laundry equipment, propelling engine of vehicles to
structure, economic capacity, geography and level of the well-lighted street, all needs electricity - energy.
environmental degradation. An unexpected cut in energy supply will make life a
bit difficult and frustrating since almost all work
LATIN AMERICA activities are linked to it.
In Latin America, higher temperature is predicted
than the global mean which generally leads to the Many might not know that planet Earth through its
reduction of Andes glaciers and a decrease in the increasing human population is facing a serious
annual precipitation in most areas with variability energy crisis, which is anchored on the escalating
around the mountainous areas. On the contrary, global energy demand derived from fossil - based
increased precipitation during the winter and fuels. This process has not only depleted our non -
summer are projected in Tierra del Fuego and renewable sources but it has also created a steady
SouthEastern South, America respectively. increase in the global carbon emissions and in the
average global temperature. Many nations and
Some of the possible extreme events that may be scientific communities have accepted that these
experienced by the inhabitants of this region are events occurred due to anthropogenic activities.
severe floods, landslides, dry spells, drought and
heat waves in the mega cities. The agricultural The International Energy Agency has outlined
sector has projected that about 50% of the several actions that are to be implemented until
agricultural lands will be subjected to desertification 2030. Some of these would include the use of
and salinization in the next 20 to 30 years. This energy efficient technologies, low-carbon energy
would affect food security and health among others. technologies, enhanced generation integration
Adaptive capacity for these regions is limited by high through renewable energy sources, increase in
infant mortality, low secondary school enrolment and nuclear energy base load provider, the use of energy
high levels of inequality in income and access to plants capable of capturing and storing carbon, and
fresh water and health care. most importantly shifting from combustion - powered
vehicles to hybrid and electric vehicles by 60%.
SMALL ISLANDS
It is expected that all small islands in the Caribbean, In December 2015, the United Nations Framework
Indian Ocean and North and South Pacific will Convention on Climate Change called for the
experience warming which would increase the leaders of developing and developed countries to
annual rainfall and will expose these islands in meet in Paris, France to make a significant
increasing intensity of tropical cyclones, storm commitment in addressing climate change which is
surge, coral bleaching and land inundation. known as the Paris Agreement. However, even
before the commencement of the Paris climate
The same scenario will be felt on food security as conference, some countries already submitted their
affected by sea-level rise, inundation, soil proposed climate commitments which include
salinization, seawater intrusion into freshwater targets for emission reductions. About 187 countries,
sources, and decline in freshwater supply. Limited accounting for 97 percent of global greenhouse gas
size, proneness to natural hazards and external emissions, have submitted their climate pledges
shocks enhance the vulnerability of the islands to based on the nationally determined contribution of
climate change thus their adaptive capacity and each country.
adaptation cost are high and are highly dependent
on their GDP. Some of the major countries are as follows:
1. United States will cut economy-wide
Global Energy Crisis and Climate Change emissions of greenhouse gas emissions to
26% by 2025 and make best efforts to reduce
The rapid conversion and modernization of it to 28%.
communities and of individual lifestyle has been

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 2. China will increase non-fossil fuels sources Renewable energy sources are energy supplies that
to 20% of the energy mix, and reduce carbon are replenished through natural processes and their
emissions by 60 to 65% from 2005 levels by energy comes ultimately from the sun. Despite being
2030. renewable, they can still become exhausted if
3. India will reduce emissions intensity by 33 humans will not utilize them wisely. Alternatives
to 35% by 2030, increase cumulative electric energy sources are not renewable, but they use the
power capacity from non-fossil fuel energy energy more efficiently than older technologies. This
resources to 40% by 2030, and create will enable humans to lengthen the lifespan of coal
additional carbon sequestration of 2.5 to 3 and fossil fuel sources.
billion tons of carbon dioxide equivalent by
2030. Types of Renewable and Alternative Forms of
4. Mexico will cut greenhouse gas and short- Energy
lived climate pollutants to 25% by 2030,
implying a reduction of 22 percent for Some of the renewable energy sources listed in the
greenhouse gas emissions and 51 percent handbook of alternative energy of the State of
for black carbon. Virginia (2014) used today are as follows:
5. European Union will reduce emissions to at
least 40% by 2030 through domestic 1. Hydropower which is generated by
measures. releasing flowing water through channel
6. Brazil will reduce economy-wide installed with turbines, This is considered as
greenhouse gas emissions by 37% by 2025 one of the oldest and largest renewable
by increasing renewable resources to 45% of power sources. The use of hydropower does
the energy mix by 2030, and by increasing not contribute to any emission of pollutants in
the share of non-hydropower renewables in the atmosphere, but the establishment of
the electricity mix to 23 percent by 2030. dams significantly pose major ecological
7. South Korea will reduce greenhouse gas problems such as habitat modification and
water quality problems.
emissions to 37% by 2030 across all
economic sectors.
2. Biomass consists of organic matter such as
8. Indonesia will cut emissions by 29% by
industrial and agricultural wastes that serve
2030.
as the second main source of renewable
9. Japan will reduce greenhouse gas
energy. Heat or energy is generated as it is
emissions by 26% 2030.
burned directly but, it is considered to be
10. Australia will reduce economy-wide
cleaner than coal since it emits lesser
greenhouse gas emissions by 26 to 28% by
amount in the atmosphere. Biomass can also
2030. be used as indirect source of energy through
the process of gasification where a
This initiative indicates a stronger transparency and combustible gas like methane is produced
accountability system for all countries where they will when biomass decomposes. Energy that can
report the greenhouse gas inventories and be used is produced when methane is
projections that will be subjected to technical expert burned.
review. This agreement may not solve our climate
change problem but will eventually ignite a new 3. Geothermal energy is harnessed from deep
wave of global climate action that will create a more underground chambers with high
aggressive action in the future. temperature originating from the earth's core.
Steams produced from these chambers
Renewable and Other Alternative Sources of cause turbine to move and later generate
Energy energy. In a sense, some may consider this
as renewable sources since it may take
Humans become more dependent on coal and fossil hundreds of millions of years before the core
fuels as sources of energy starting from the year of our planet cool down.
1800, but scientists have realized that these sources
will not last forever and their continued use 4. Solar energy comes directly from the sun.
contributes to environmental pollution. This can be harnessed when the sun's heat

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 is converted to electricity using solar cells of of investment in establishing such energy
photovoltaic technology. There can be an sources can be balanced by their long-term
active or passive system in the utilization of saving.
the sun's heat. In active systems, solar 2. Small communities located near streams.
collectors use circulating air or liquid to bring should at least develop small micro
heat in areas where it is needed in certain hydropower systems to power community
facilities while in passive systems, facilities lights and other house needs.
are built with specific structures such as 3. Solar panels are suggested to be installed
windows and other heat absorbing surfaces in the roof of individual houses to generate
to maximize heating most especially during electricity for household use.
cold seasons. Both systems are suitable for 4. When space and annual wind current is
residential use. available, small residential wind energy
systems should be established to provide a
5. Wind energy is generated when clean, non-polluting source of electricity.
aerodynamic blades attached to a hub turn 5. When several renewable energy sources
due to wind current. The hub is connected to are available, a hybrid power system that
a shaft that turns the generator. combine different renewable energy sources
should be used to produce electricity.
6. Fuel cells are alternative energy devices 6. Utilize fuel cells that combine hydrogen
that use chemical reactions to generate heat and oxygen without the need of combusting
or electricity. Unlike batteries that depend on these substances to generate electricity and
the activity of the stored chemicals within gives off water vapor as by product.
them, fuel cells generate energy depending 7. Individuals and communities should take
on the availability of the raw materials. advantage of existing government programs
on renewable energy systems.
In the Philippines, renewable energy resources 8. People should understand that reducing
include solar, wind, geothermal, hydropower and energy use through conservation and
biomass. These resources cover about 24% of the increased efficiency will always be cheaper
total energy needs of our country, that is about than installing a renewable energy system.
21,979,459 megawatt-hour of electrical energy out
of 90, 797, 891 megawatt-hour (Figure 16.9).
Furthermore, the Department of Energy through the
Renewable Energy Law (R.A. 9513) that promotes
the development, utilization and commercialization
of renewable energy resources, provide incentives
to project proponents that utilize renewable
resources. Some efforts of the transportation
industries in the country is to offer and utilize electric
vehicles such as bicycle, tricycles and jeepneys
(Figure 16.10). This direction is given by the
government to replace the traditional vehicles with
electric ones.

Some Energy Tips and Recommendations

The Department of Mines, Mineral and Energy of the

State of Virginia in the United States has identified
some tips and recommendations in relation to
renewable energy.
1. The use of renewable energy systems
should be considered in every nation since it
produces clean and non-polluting energy
aiding also in the preservation of our natural
environment. The burden of having high cost

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