Chapter 3

REFERENCE-FRAME THEORY

3.1 INTRODUCTION

The voltage equations that describe the performance of induction and synchronous
machines were established in Chapter 1. We found that some of the machine induc-
tances are functions of the rotor speed, whereupon the coefficients of the differential
equations (voltage equations) that describe the behavior of these machines are time-
varying except when the rotor is stalled. A change of variables is often used to reduce
the complexity of these differential equations. There are several changes of variables
that are used, and it was originally thought that each change of variables was different
and therefore they were treated separately [1-4]. It was later learned that all changes
of variables used to transform real variables are contained in one [5,6]. This general
transformation refers machine variables to a frame of reference that rotates at an
arbitrary angular velocity. All known real transformations are obtained from this
transformation by simply assigning the speed of the rotation of the reference frame.
In this chapter this transformation is set forth and, because many of its properties
can be studied without the complexities of the machine equations, it is applied to the
equations that describe resistive, inductive, and capacitive circuit elements. By this
approach, many of the basic concepts and interpretations of this general transforma-
tion are readily and concisely established. Extending the material presented in this
chapter to the analysis of ac machines is straightforward involving a minimum of
trigonometric manipulations.

3.2 BACKGROUND

In the late 1920s, R. H. Park [1] introduced a new approach to electric machine ana-
lysis. He formulated a change of variables which, in effect, replaced the variables
109
110 REFERENCE-FRAME THEORY

(voltages, currents, and flux linkages) associated with the stator windings of a syn-
chronous machine with variables associated with fictitious windings rotating with
the rotor. In other words, he transformed, or referred, the stator variables to a frame
of reference fixed in the rotor. Park's transformation, which revolutionized electric
machine analysis, has the unique property of eliminating all time-varying induc-
tances from the voltage equations of the synchronous machine which occur due to
(1) electric circuits in relative motion and (2) electric circuits with varying magnetic
reluctance.
In the late 1930s, H. C. Stanley [2] employed a change of variables in the
analysis of induction machines. He showed that the time-varying inductances in
the voltage equations of an induction machine due to electric circuits in relative
motion could be eliminated by transforming the variables associated with the rotor
windings (rotor variables) to variables associated with fictitious stationary windings.
In this case the rotor variables are transformed to a frame reference fixed in the
stator.
G. Kron [3] introduced a change of variables that eliminated the position or time-
varying mutual inductances of a symmetrical induction machine by transforming
both the stator variables and the rotor variables to a reference frame rotating in syn-
chronism with the rotating magnetic field. This reference frame is commonly
referred to as the synchronously rotating reference frame.
D. S. Brereton et al. [4] employed a change of variables that also eliminated the
time-varying inductances of a symmetrical induction machine by transforming the
stator variables to a reference frame fixed in the rotor. This is essentially Park's
transformation applied to induction machines.
Park, Stanley, Kron, and Brereton et a1. developed changes of variables, each
of which appeared to be uniquely suited for a particular application. Consequently,
each transformation was derived and treated separately in literature until it
was noted in 1965 [5] that all known real transformations used in induction
machine analysis are contained in one general transformation that eliminates all
time-varying inductances by referring the stator and the rotor variables to a
frame of reference that may rotate at any angular velocity or remain stationary.
All known real transformations may then be obtained by simply assigning the
appropriate speed of rotation, which may in fact be zero, to this so-called
arbitrary reference frame. It is interesting to note that this transformation is
sometimes referred to as the "generalized rotating real transformation," which
may be somewhat misleading because the reference frame need not rotate. In
any event, we will refer to it as the arbitrary reference frame as did the
originators [5]. Later, it was noted that the stator variables of a synchronous
machine could also be referred to the arbitrary reference frame [6]. However, we
will find that the time-varying inductances of a synchronous machine are
eliminated only if the reference frame is fixed in the rotor (Park's transfor-
mation); consequently the arbitrary reference frame does not offer the advantages
in the analysis of the synchronous machines that it does in the case of induction
machines.
 EQUATIONS OF TRANSFORMATION: CHANGE OF VARIABLES 111

3.3 EQUATIONS OF TRANSFORMATION:

CHANGE OF VARIABLES

Although changes of variables are used in the analysis of ac machines to eliminate

time-varying inductances, changes of variables are also employed in the analysis of
various static, constant-parameter power-system components and control systems
associated with electric drives. For example, in many of the computer programs
used for transient and dynamic stability studies of large power systems, the variables
of all power-system components except for the synchronous machines are repre-
sented in a reference frame rotating at synchronous speed. Hence, the variables asso-
ciated with the transformers, transmission lines, loads, capacitor banks, and static
var units, for example, must be transformed to the synchronous rotating reference
frame by a change of variables. Similarly, the "average value" of the variables asso-
ciated with the conversion process in electric drive systems and in high-voltage
ac-dc systems are often expressed in the synchronously rotating reference frame.
Fortunately, all known real transformations for these components and controls are
also contained in the transformation to the arbitrary reference frame, the same gene-
ral transformation used for the stator variables of the induction and synchronous
machines and for the rotor variables of induction machines. Although we could for-
mulate one transformation to the arbitrary reference frame that could be applied to
all variables, it is preferable to consider only the variables associated with stationary
circuits in this chapter and then modify this analysis for the variables associated with
the rotor windings of the induction machine at the time it is analyzed.
A change of variables that formulates a transformation of the 3-phase variables of
stationary circuit elements to the arbitrary reference frame may by expressed as

fqdOs == K, f abes (3.3-1)

where

(fqdOs)T == [Iqs Ids los] (3.3-2)

(fabes)T == [las Ibs Ies] (3.3-3)
COS f) cos (f) - ~) cos (f) +~)]
K.. = ~ sin 0 sin (0 - ~) sin (0 + ¥) (3.3-4)
[ I I I
2 2 2
dO
W==- (3.3-5)
dt

It can be shown that for the inverse transformation we have

sin 8
sin(e-~)
tIt]
(3.3-6)
sin (0 +~)
112 REFERENCE-FRAME THEORY

The angular velocity, (0, and the angular displacement, (J, of the arbitrary reference
frame are related by (3.3-5). Thus

0= Jaidt (3.3-7)

or in definite integral form

(3.3-8)

where ~ is a dummy variable of integration. We will use one of the above relation-
ships between () and OJ depending upon which is most convenient for analysis
purposes.
In the above equations,I can represent either voltage, current, flux linkage, or
electric charge. The superscript T denotes the transpose of a matrix. The s subscript
indicates the variables, parameters, and transformation associated with stationary
circuits. The angular displacement() must be continuous;however, the angular velo-
city associated with the change of variables is unspecified. The frame of reference
may rotate at any constant or varying angular velocity or it may remain stationary.
The connotation of arbitrary stems from the fact that the angular velocity of the
transformation is unspecified and can be selected arbitrarily to expedite the solution
of the system equationsor to satisfy the system constraints. The change of variables
may be appliedto variables of any waveform and time sequence; however, we will find
that the transformation given above is particularlyappropriate for an abc sequence.
Although the transformation to the arbitrary reference frame is a change of vari-
ables and needs no physicalconnotation,it is often convenientto visualize the trans-
formation equations as trigonometric relationships between variables as shown in
Fig. 3.3-1. In particular, the equations of transformation may be thought of as if
the fqs and fds variables are "directed" along paths orthogonal to each other and
rotating at an angular velocity of OJ, whereupon fan fbn and fcs may be considered
as variablesdirected along stationarypaths, each displaced by 120°. Iflanlbs' andles
are resolved into fqs, the first row of (3.3-1) is obtained; and if Ian fbs, and fes are
resolved into Ids, the second row is obtained. It is important to note thatfos variables
are not associated with the arbitrary reference frame. Instead, the zero variables are
related arithmeticallyto the abc variables, independent of e. It is also important not
to confuse fas, fbs, and fcs with phasors. They are instantaneous quantities that may
be any function of time. Portrayingthe transformation as shown in Fig. 3.3-1 is par-
ticularly convenient when applying it to ac machines where the direction of fas' jbs'
and fcs may also be thought of as the direction of the magnetic axes of the stator
windings. We will find that the direction ofjqs andfds can be consideredas the direc-
tion of the magneticaxes of the "new" windingscreated by the change of variables.
The total instantaneous power may be expressed in abc variables as
(3.3-9)
 EQUATIONS OF TRANSFORMATION: CHANGE OF VARIABLES 113

Figure 3.3-1 Transformation

for stationary circuits portrayed
by trigonometric relationships.

The total power expressed in the qdO variables must equal the total power expressed
in the abc variables; hence substituting (3.3-1) into (3.3-9) yields

(3.3-10)

The 3/2 factor comes about due to the choice of the constant used in the transforma-
tion. Although the waveforms of the qs and ds voltages, currents, flux linkages, and
electric charges are dependent upon the angular velocity of the frame of reference,
the waveform of total power is independent of the frame of reference. In other words,
the waveform of the total power is the same regardless of the reference frame in
which it is evaluated.

Example 3A For the purpose of becoming familiar with this transformation

let
I
las == cos t Ibs =="2 t fcs == - sin t

Let us first determine expressions for Iqs, Ids, and los. From (3.3-1) we
obtain

2[
fqs == 3" cos t cos e+ 2J t cos (277:).
(J - 3 - stn t cos (21t)
(J + 3 ] (3A-l)

Ids = ~ [ cos t sin e+ ~ t sin (e - ~) - sin t sin ( o+ 231t)] (3A-2)

los = ~ ( cos t + ~ t - sin t) (3A-3)

114 REFERENCE-FRAME THEORY

~ fas cos (J = 0.2357

i fas sin 8 = 0.2357 fas = cos t

t =! s
3

(a)

fhs = ! t
t = '! s
3

Ubs sin (9_;")

= -0.3372
i fin cos (9 - 2,,) = 0.0903
3

(b)
fcs = ;sin t
t = 3s

~fcscos
2 (2")
8+ 3
= 0.5576

ifa sin (9 + 2;)

= - 0.1494

(c)

Figure 3A-l Resolution of las , IbH andks into the directions oflqs and Ids for t = n/3s and
(} = n/4 rad. (a) Resolution of las; (b) resolution of Ibs; (c) resolution of Ics.
 STATIONARY CIRCUIT VARIABLES TRANSFORMED 115

Now assume that 0(0) == -n/12 and (J) == 1 rad/s. Let us evaluate
(3A-l)-(3A-3) for t == n/3s and show the trigonometric relationship between
the fas' fbs, fCH fq.H and fds variables for this condition. From (3.3-8) we have
n n n
0(t=n/3) == 3" -12 == 4 (3A-4)

Appropriate substitution into (3A-l )-(3A-3) yields

Iqs = ~ [cos i cos ~ +G) i cos (~- 2;) - sin i cos (~+ ~n) ]
=~ [G) (~) + G) G) (0.2588) - (~)(-0.9659)]
== 0.8836 (3A-5)

JEd 2[ 3
n. 4
n2(I)3
n.4
(n 32n) - sin. -3
n.sIn4
== - cos - sIn - + - - sIn - - -
s3
(n- +3-2n)]
=~ [G) (~) + G) G) (-0.9659) - (~)(0.2588)]
== -0.2509 (3A-6)

los = ~ [COS} + G) G) - Sin}]

== 0.0525 (3A-7)

The trigonometric relationships between variables at t == n/3 sand (J ==

n/4 rad are shown in Figs. 3A-l and 3A-2. In Fig. 3A-la the resolution of
fqs and fds is depicted. The resulting component in the direction of fqs is the
first term of (3A-5). Likewise, the component in the direction of Ids is the first
term of (3A-6). Note that Figs. 3A-l band 3A- I c the component in the fds
direction is negative. The composite of all components is shown in Fig. 3A-2.

3.4 STATIONARY CIRCUIT VARIABLES TRANSFORMED

TO THE ARBITRARY REFERENCE FRAME

It is convenient to treat resistive, inductive, and capacitive circuit elements sepa-

rately.

Resistive Elements
For a 3-phase resistive circuit we have

Vnbcs == rsiabcs (3.4-1)

116 REFERENCE-FRAME THEORY

Figure 3A-2 Compositeof Fig. 3A-l.

From (3.3-1) we obtain

(3.4-2)

It is necessary to specify the resistance matrix r s before proceeding. All stator phase
windings of either a synchronous or a symmetrical induction machine are designed
to have the same resistance. Similarly, transformers, capacitor banks, transmission
lines, and, in fact, all power-system components are designed so that all phases have
equal resistances. Even power-system loads are distributed between phases so that
all phases are loaded nearly equal. If the nonzero elements of the diagonal matrix r s
are equal, then

(3.4-3)

Thus, the resistance matrix associated with the arbitrary reference variables is equal
to the resistance matrix associated with the actual variables if each phase of the
actual circuit has the same resistance. If the phase resistances are unequal (unba-
lanced or unsymmetrical), then the resistance matrix associated with the arbitrary
reference-frame variables contains sinusoidal functions of (} except when to == 0,
 STATIONARY CIRCUIT VARIABLES TRANSFORMED 117

whereupon K, is algebraic. In other words, if the phase resistances are unbalanced,

the transformation yields constant resistances only if the reference frame is fixed
where the unbalance physically exists. This feature is quite easily illustrated by sub-
stituting r, == diag [ra.\, rbs res] into Ksrs{Ks ) -I.

Inductive Elements
For a 3-phase inductive circuit we have

Vabcs == p Aabcs (3.4-4)

where p is the operator d/ dt. In the case of the magnetically linear system it has been
customary to express the flux linkages as a product of inductance and current
matrices before performing a change of variables. However, the transformation is
valid for flux linkages, and an extensive amount of work can be avoided by trans-
forming the flux linkages directly. This is especially true in the analysis of ac
machines where the inductance matrix is a function of rotor position. Thus, in terms
of the substitute variables, (3.4-4) becomes

(3.4-5)

which can be written as

(3.4-6)

It is easy to show that

cosO
cos(e-~)
O~]
(3.4-7)
cos(e+~)

Therefore,

K sp[(Ks)- I] == W -1 0 0
0 1 0] (3.4-8)
[
000

Trigonometric identities given in Appendix A are helpful in obtaining (3.4-8). Equa-

tion (3.4-6) may now be expressed as

VqdOs == WAdqs + PAqdOs (3.4-9)

where

(3.4-10)
118 REFERENCE-FRAME THEORY

Equation (3.4-6) is often written in expanded form as

Vqs + PAqs
== WAds (3.4-11 )
vds == -WAqs + PAds (3.4-12)
vOs == PAOs (3.4-13)

The first term on the right side of (3.4-11) or (3.4-12) is referred to as a "speed
voltage," with the speed being the angular velocity of the arbitrary reference frame.
It is clear that the speed voltage terms are zero if W is zero, which, of course, is when
the reference frame is stationary. Clearly, the voltage equations for the 3-phase
inductive circuit become the familiar time rate of change of flux linkages if the refe-
rence frame is fixed where the circuit physically exists. Also, because (3.4-4) is valid
in general, it follows that (3.4-11)-(3.4-13) are valid regardless if the system is mag-
netically linear or nonlinear and regardless of the form of the inductance matrix if
the system is magnetically linear.
For a linear magnetic system, the flux linkages may be expressed as

(3.4-14)

whereupon the flux linkages in the arbitrary reference frame may be written as

(3.4-15)

As is the case of the resistive circuit, it is necessary to specify the inductance matrix
before proceeding with the evaluation of (3.4-15). However, once the inductance
matrix is specified, the procedure for expressing any 3-phase inductive circuit in
the arbitrary reference frame reduces to one of evaluating (3.4-15) and substituting
the resulting AqH Ads, and Aos into the voltage equations (3.4-11 )-(3.4-13). This pro-
cedure is straightforward with a minimum of matrix manipulations compared to the
work involved if, for a linear system, the flux linkage matrix A,abcs is replaced by
Lsiabcs before performing the transformation.
If, for example, L s is a diagonal matrix with all nonzero terms equal, then

(3.4-16)

A matrix of this form could describe the inductance of a balanced 3-phase inductive
load, a 3-phase set of line reactors used in high-voltage transmission systems or any
symmetrical 3-phase inductive network without inductive coupling between phases.
It is clear that the comments regarding unbalanced or unsymmetrical phase resis-
tances also apply in the case of unsymmetrical inductances.
An inductance matrix that is common to synchronous and induction machines is
of the form
Lis + Lms -!Lms -!Lms
Ls == -!Lms Lis + t.; -!Lms (3.4-17)
-!Lms -!Lms Lis + Lms
 STATIONARY CIRCUIT VARIABLES TRANSFORMED 119

where LIs is a leakage inductance and Lms is a magnetizing inductance. From our
work in Chapter 1 we realize that this inductance matrix describes the self- and
mutual inductance relationships of the stator phases of a symmetrical induction
machine and the stator phases of a round rotor synchronous machine. It is left to
the reader to show that for L, given by (3.4-17) we have

(3.4-18)

Linear 3-phase coupled systems are magnetically symmetrical if the diagonal ele-
ments are equal and all off-diagonal elements of the inductance matrix are also
equal. Equation (3.4-17) is of this form. We see from (3.4-18) that, for a symmetrical
system, KsLs{Ks)-1 yields a diagonal matrix that, in effect, magnetically uncouples
the substitute variables in all reference frames. On the other hand, we have seen in
Chapter 1 that the self- and mutual inductances between the stator phases of the
salient-pole synchronous machine form a magnetically unsymmetrical system. It
will be shown that in this case there is only one reference frame wherein the substi-
tute variables are not magnetically coupled.

Capacitive Elements
For a 3-phase capacitive circuit we have

(3.4-19)

Incorporating the substitute variables yields

iqdOs == Ksp [(K.\. )- IqqdOs] (3.4-20)

which can be written as

iqdOs == Ksp[(K s ) - I ] qqdOs + K.\. (K s)- I pqqdOs (3.4-21 )

Utilizing (3.4-8) yields

(3.4-22)

where

(3.4-23)

In expanded form we have

iqs == wqds + pqqs (3.4-24)
ids == -wq qs + pqds (3.4-25)
iDs == pqo.'i (3.4-26)
120 REFERENCE-FRAME THEORY

Considering the terminology of "speed voltages" as used in the case of induc-

tive circuits, it would seem appropriate to refer to the first term on the right side
of either (3.4-24) or (3.4-25) as "speed currents." Also, as in the case of inductive
circuits, the equations revert to the familiar form in the stationary reference
frame (w == 0).
Equations (3.4-24)-(3.4-26) are valid regardless of the relationship between
charge and voltage. For a linear capacitive system we have

lJabcs == C sVabcs (3.4-27)

Thus, in the arbitrary reference frame we have

(3.4-28)

Once the capacitance matrix is specified, qqs, qds, and qos can be determined and sub-
stituted into (3.4-24)-(3.4-26). The procedure and limitations are analogous to those
in the case of the inductive circuits. A diagonal capacitance matrix with equal non-
zero elements describes, for example, (i) a 3-phase capacitor bank used for power
factor correction and (ii) the series capacitance used for transmission line compen-
sation or any 3-phase electrostatic system without coupling between phases. A 3-
phase transmission system is often approximated as a symmetrical system, where-
upon the inductance and capacitance matrices may be written in a form similar to
(3.4-17).

Example 3D For the purpose of demonstrating the transformation of vari-

ables to the arbitrary reference frame, let us consider a 3-phase RL circuit
defined by
(3B-l)

(3B-2)

Two circuit configurations are shown in Fig. 3B-I. The circuit diagram shown
in Fig. 3B-Ia portrays the example resistance and inductance matrices as the
series elements of a section of a symmetrical, 3-phase transmission line. The
diagram in Fig. 3B-Ib shows the circuit elements connected in a wye arrange-
ment. If L, = Lis + L ms and M = -!
L ms ' then the resistance and inductance
matrices depict the stator phases of a symmetrical induction machine or a
round-rotor synchronous machine. It must be pointed out, however, that this
inductance matrix does not describe the complete magnetic system of a
machine because the rotor windings are not considered. Nevertheless, this
RL circuit can be used to advantage to illustrate the implementation of the
change of variables.
 STATIONARY CIRCUIT VARIABLES TRANSFORMED 121

Vas

<,
/
I Ls \M
I J
I, Ls
M
\
Vel \
Ls
(a)

+~ +
.--M-, L,
/' "
\
J
I
M
/
./
---L,

Figure 3B-l Three-phase RL circuit.

(a)Series elements of a symmetrical
transmission line; (b) Stator windings of
+ a symmetrical induction or round-rotor
(b) synchronous machine.

Each phase voltage can be expressed as the sum of the voltages across each
element:

(3B-3)
(3B-4)
(3B-5)
Similarly, in the arbitrary reference we have

Vqs == VqsR + VqsL (3B-6)

(38-7)

VO.\" == Vo.\'R + VOsL (3B-8)

122 REFERENCE-FRAME THEORY

From (3.4-2) and (3.4-3) we obtain

VqsR == rsiqs (3B-9)

vdsR == rsids (3B-IO)
VOsR == 'sios (3B-Il )

Equations (3.4-11)-(3.4-13) express the voltage equations for the inductive

elements in the arbitrary reference. Because the example inductance matrix is
in the same form as (3.4-17), we can use (3.4-18) as a guide to evaluate
KsLs(Ks)-I. Thus

LS- M O O ]
KsLs(Ks)-1 == 0 L, - M 0 (3B-12)
[ o 0 Ls+2M
Therefore the voltage equations in the arbitrary reference frame may be
expressed as
vqs == rsiqs + WAds + pAqs (3B-13)
Vds == rsids - WAqs + pAds (3B-14)
VOs == rsios + pAos (3B-15)

where
Aqs == (Ls - M)i qs (3B-16)
Ads = (L, - M)ids (3B-17)
los = (Ls - 2M)ios (3B-18)

The equivalent circuit which portrays (3B-13)-(3B-18) is given in Fig. 3B-2.

Ls-M

Figure 3B-2 Arbitrary reference-frame equivalent circuits for 3-phase RL circuit shown in
Fig.3B-1.
 COMMONLY USED REFERENCE FRAMES 123

In this chapter we have chosen to introduce the transformation to the arbi-

trary reference frame by considering only stationary circuits. The complexities
of the time-varying inductances are purposely omitted. Although the transfor-
mation diagonalizes the inductance matrix and thus uncouples the phases, one
cannot see the advantages of transforming to any reference frame other than
the stationary reference frame because it tends to complicate the voltage equa-
tions of the static circuits. In other words, the above voltage equations are most
easily solved with to == O. However, our purpose is to set forth the basic con-
cepts and the interpretations of this general transformation; its advantages in
machine analysis will be demonstrated in later chapters.

3.5 COMMONLY USED REFERENCE FRAMES

It is instructive to take a preliminary look at the reference frames commonly used in

the analysis of electric machines and power system components-namely, the arbi-
trary, stationary, rotor, and synchronous reference frames. Information regarding
each of these reference frames as applied to stationary circuits is given in the follow-
ing table.

Notation

Reference Trans-
Frame Speed Interpretation Variables formation

w Stationary circuit variables referred to fqdOs or

(unspecitied) the arbitrary reference frame Iqs, Ids, los

o Stationary circuit variables referred to f~dO.\" or

the stationary reference frame 1:.\., r: los
Stationary circuit variables referred to f~dOs or
a reference frame fixed in the rotor 1;\., Ids' los
Stationary circuit variables referred to the ~dOs or
synchronously rotating reference frame 1;\., Ids' los

For purposes at hand it is sufficient for us to define the synchronously rotating

reference frame or the synchronous reference frame as the reference frame rotating
at the electrical angular velocity corresponding to the fundamental frequency of the
variables associated with stationary circuits, herein denoted as We' In the case of ac
machines, We is the electrical angular velocity of the air-gap rotating magnetic field
established by stator currents of fundamental frequency.
The notation requires some explanation. We have previously established that the s
subscript denotes variables and transformations associated with circuits that are
stationary in "real life" as opposed to rotor circuits that are free to rotate. Later
124 REFERENCE-FRAME THEORY

we will use subscript r to denote variables and the transformation associated with
rotor circuits. The raised index denotes the qs and ds variables and transformation
associated with a specific reference frame except in the case of the arbitrary refer-
ence frame that carries no raised index. Because the Os variables are independent of
OJ and therefore not associated with a reference frame, a raised index is not assigned
to los- The transformation of variables associated with stationary circuits to a station-
ary reference frame was developed by E. Clarke [7], who used the notation!a,lp, and
10 rather than/%s,fds' andfos. In Park's transformation to the rotor reference frame, he
denoted the variableslq,fd, andfo rather thanf;s,fds' andfos. There appears to be no
established notation for the variables in the synchronously rotating reference frame.
As mentioned previously, the voltage equations for all reference frames may be
obtained from those in the arbitrary reference frame. The voltage equations for
inductive or capacitive elements are obtained by assigning the appropriate value
to ill in the speed voltages or speed currents. The transformation for a specific refe-
rence frame is obtained by substituting the appropriate reference-frame speed for ill
into (3.3-8) to obtain the angular displacement. In most cases the initial or time-zero
displacement can be selected equal to zero; however, there are situations where the
initial displacement of the reference frame to which the variables are being trans-
formed will not be zero.

3.6 TRANSFORMATION BETWEEN REFERENCE FRAMES

In some derivations and analyses it is convenient to relate variables in one reference

frame to variables in another reference frame directly, without involving the abc
variables in the transformation. In order to establish this transformation between
any two frames of reference, let x denote the reference frame from which the vari-
ables are being transformed and let y denote the reference frame to which the vari-
ables are being transformed; then

f yqdOs -- xKYfx (3.6-1)

qdOs

From (3.3-1) we obtain

(3.6-2)

Substituting (3.6-2) into (3.6-1) yields

fyqdOs -- xKYKxf
s abcs (3.6-3)

However, from (3.3-1) we obtain

f qdOs
y -
-
KYf
s abcs (3.6-4)
 TRANSFORMATION BETWEEN REFERENCE FRAMES 125

Thus

(3.6-5)

from which

XKY == KY(K~)-l
S .\
(3.6-6)

The desired transformation is obtained by substituting the appropriate trans-

formations into (3.6-6). Hence

(3.6-7)

Several of the trigonometric identities given in Appendix A are useful in obtaining

(3.6-7). This transformation, which is sometimes referred to as a "vector rotator" or
simply "rotator," can also be visualized from the trigonometric relationship between
two sets of rotating, orthogonal quantities as shown in Fig. 3.6-1. Resolvingf:~ and
Ids into t:'i yields the first row of (3.6-7), and resolving t;\O and Ids into IJ'i yields the
second row. It is left for the reader to show that

(3.6-8)

Figure 3.6-1 Transformation between two

reference frames portrayed by trigonometric
relationships.
126 REFERENCE-FRAME THEORY

3.7 TRANSFORMATION OF A BALANCED SET

Although the transformation equations are valid regardless of the waveform of the
variables, it is instructive to consider the characteristics of the transformation when
the 3-phase system is symmetrical and the voltages and currents form a balanced
3-phase set of abc sequence as given by (3.7-1)-(3.7-4). A balanced 3-phase set
is generally defined as a set of equal-amplitude sinusoidal quantities that are dis-
placed by 1200 • Because the sum of this set is zero, the Os variables are zero.

las == v'2is cos fJef (3.7-1)

fbs = v'2fs cos (eel _2;) (3.7-2)

fes = v'2fs cos (eel + 2;) (3.7-3)

where is may be a function of time and

dfJef
We == - (3.7-4)
dt

Substituting (3.7-1)-(3.7-3) into the transformation to the arbitrary reference

frame (3.3-1) yields

fqs == Viis cos (Oef - 8) (3.7-5)

Ids == - J2fs sin ((J ef - 0) (3.7-6)
los == 0 (3.7-7)

With the 3-phase variables as given in (3.7-1)-(3.7-3), the qs and ds variables

form a balanced 2-phase set in all reference frames except when W == We. In this,
the synchronously rotating reference frame, the qs and ds quantities become

I;s == v'2fs cos (fJef - fJe ) (3.7-8)

fJs == -v'2fs sin (fJ ef - (Je) (3.7-9)

Recall that (Je is the angular position of the synchronously rotating reference frame
and fJ e and fJ ef both have an angular velocity of We. Hence, (Jef - (Je is a constant
depending upon the initial values of the variable being transformed and the initial
position of the synchronously rotating reference frame. Equations (3.7-8) and
(3.7-9) reveal a property that is noteworthy. There is one reference frame where a
constant amplitude balanced set will appear as constants. In other words, if a con-
stant amplitude balanced set appears in any reference frame, then there is another
reference frame where this balanced set appears as constants.
 BALANCED STEADY-STATE PHASOR RELATIONSHIPS 127

3.8 BALANCED STEADY-STATE PHASOR RELATIONSHIPS

For balanced steady-state conditions, (Ue is constant and (3.7-1)-(3.7-3) may be

expressed as

Fli S == /2 F, cos [wet + Oef(O)]

== Re[/2 e. ejo(~,.(O) ej(f)(,t] (3.8-1)

r; = /2 r, cos [oJet + Oej(O) _ 2;]

== Re[/2 F,\' ej[(J(~,.(O)-2n/3] ej(t)et ] (3.8-2)

r: = /2 F., cos [wet + Oej(O) + 231[]

== Re[/2 F se j [O(,r (O)+ 2n/ 3] e jWe1] (3.8-3)

where Oej{O) corresponds to the time-zero value of the 3-phase variables. The upper-
case letters are used to denote steady-state quantities. If the speed of the arbitrary
reference frame is an unspecified constant, then for the balanced steady-state condi-
tions we may express (3.7-5) and (3.7-6) as

Fq.\. == /2P.\.cos[(w e - w)t + Oej(O) - O(O)J

== Re[/2Fsej[()~f (O)-O(O)]e j W )I]
( (I )e -
(3.8-4)
Fds == -/2Fs sin [(O)e - w)t + O~f(O) - 0(0)]
== Re[j/2 r, ej[o(~r(O)-O(O)] e j((I)(·-W)I] (3.8-5)

From (3.8-1), the phasor representing the as variables is

(3.8-6)

If W is not equal to We, then F qs and F ds are sinusoidal quantities, and from (3.8-4)
and (3.8-5) we obtain
Fqs == Fs ej((J(~f(O)-O(O)] (3.8-7)
r; == jFq.\. (3.8-8)

It is necessary to consider negative frequencies because W can be greater than We.

The phasors rotate in the counterclockwise direction for W < co, and in the clock-
wise direction for W > We'
In the analysis of steady-state operation we are free to select time zero. It is often
convenient to select it so that 0(0) == 0; then from (3.8-6) and (3.8-7) we obtain

t ; == Fqs (3.8-9)
128 REFERENCE-FRAME THEORY

Thus, in all asynchronously rotating reference frames (w 1= we) with 8(0) == 0, the
phasor representing the as is equal to the phasor representing the qs variables. For
balanced steady-state conditions, the phasor representing the variables of one phase
need only be shifted in order to represent the variables in the other phases.
In the synchronously rotating reference frame we have to == We and 0(0) == Oe(O).
If we continue to use uppercase letters to denote the constant steady-state variables
in the synchronously rotating reference frame, then from (3.8-4) and (3.8-5) we obtain

Feqs == Re[V2FseJ[Oe/(O)-Oe(O}]] (3.8-10)

F~s == Re[jV2Fse} [Oe/ (O)- Oe(O)]] (3.8-11)

If we let the time-zero position of the reference frame be zero, then Oe(O) == 0(0) == 0
and

F;s == V2Fscos(Je/(O) (3.8-12)

F~s == -V2Fs sinOe/ (O) (3.8-13)

Thus, we see from a comparison of (3.8-6) with (3.8-12) and (3.8-13) that

(3.8-14)

Because r: == Fqs, (3.8-14) is important in that it relates the synchronously rotating

reference-frame variables to a phasor in all other reference frames. Fas is a phasor
that represents a sinusoidal quantity; however, F: s and Fds are not phasors. They are
real quantities representing the constant steady-state variables of the synchronously
rotating reference frame.

Example 3C It is helpful to discuss the difference between the directions of

fas,fbs, andles as shown in Fig. 3.3-1 and phasors. The relationships shown in
Fig. 3.3-1 trigonometrically illustrate the transformation defined by (3.3-1)-
(3.3-6). Figure 3.3-1 is not a phasor diagram and should not be interpreted
as such. It simply depicts the relationships between the directions of fas, fbs,
les,lqs, and Ids as dictated by the equations of transformation regardless of
the instantaneous values of these variables. On the other hand, phasors provide
an analysis tool for steady-state sinusoidal variables. The magnitude and phase
angle of the phasor are directly related to the amplitude of the sinusoidal var-
iation and its phase position relative to a reference. The balanced set given by
(3.7-1)-(3.7-3) may be written as (3.8-1)-(3.8-3) for steady-state conditions.
The phasor representation for the as variables is given by (3.8-6). The phasor
representation for the balanced set is
r: == Fse}8ej(O} (3C-l)
F"" bs -- F s e}[O~r(O)-2n/3] (3C-2)
F""cs -- F s e}[Oer(O}+2n/3] (3C-3)
 BALANCED STEADY-STATE PHASOR RELATIONSHIPS 129

------,
____________J __ 8e/(O)

Figure 3C-l Phasor represen-

tation for a 3-phase balanced set.

The phasor diagram is shown in Fig. 3C-l. For balanced conditions, the pha-
sors that form an abc sequence are displaced from each other by 1200 and each
with a phase angle of lJef(O). The directions of fas, fbs, and fcs in Fig. 3.3-1,
which are fixed by the transformation, are such that fcs is directed - 1200
from las. However, r: is + 1200 from r:
for balanced conditions
(Fig. 3C-I). Another important difference is that the phasor diagram must
be rotated at We in the counterclockwise direction, and the real part of the pha-
sors represents the instantaneousvalues of the 3-phase set. The diagram of fas,
fbs, and fes shown in Fig. 3.3-1 is stationary for stationary circuits.
Phasorscan also be used to analyze unbalanced steady-state sinusoidalvari-
ables. An example of a steady-state unbalanced 3-phase set is

Fa., = ,ji r, cos (Wet + ~) (3C-4)

Fh.fi == 2,jiFs sin wet (3C-5)

F cs
/2
== T F s cos (Wet + 1£) (3C-6)

Figure 3C-2 Phasor representation for a 3-phase

unbalanced set.
130 REFERENCE-FRAME THEORY

The phasor diagram for this set is shown in Fig. 3C-2. It is clear that the posi-
tive directions of !aH !bs, and !cs in Fig. 3.3-1 are unchanged.

3.9 BALANCED STEADY-STATE VOLTAGE EQUATIONS

If the 3-p~ase system is symmetrical and if the applied voltages form a balance set as
given by (3.7-1)-(3.7-3), then the steady-state currents will also form a balanced set.
For equal resistance in each phase, the steady-state voltage equation in terms of the
as variables is

(3.9-1)

For linear, symmetrical inductive elements the steady-state voltage equation may be
written as

(3.9-2)

where Aas is an inductance times las. For linear, symmetrical capacitive elements the
steady-state current equation becomes

(3.9-3)

where Qas is a capacitance times Vas. It is clear that for any combination of linear
symmetrical circuit elements the steady-state voltage equation may be expressed in
phasor form as

(3.9-4)

where Zs is the impedance of each phase of the 3-phase system.

For equal resistance in each phase of the circuit, the balanced steady-state voltage
equation for the qs variables in all asynchronously rotating reference frames can be
written from (3.4-2) as

(3.9-5)

For linear symmetrical inductive elements, the steady-state qs voltage equation in all
asynchronously rotating reference frames may be written from (3.4-11) as

(3.9-6)

where the (we - ill) factor comes about due to the fact that the steady-state variables
in all asynchronously rotating reference frames vary at the frequency corresponding
 BALANCED STEADY-STATE VOLTAGE EQUATIONS 131

to (We - w). From (3.8-8), we obtain Ads ==jA.qs ; thus (3.9-6) becomes

(3.9-7)

Similarly, for a linear symmetrical capacitive circuit the steady-state qs current pha-
sor equation in all asynchronously rotating reference frames may be written from
(3.4-24) as

(3.9-8)

Thus, for any combination of linear symmetrical circuit elements the steady-state
voltage equation in all asynchronously rotating reference frames may be expressed
in phasor form as

(3.9-9)

where, for a given 3-phase system, Zs is the same complex impedance as in (3.9-4).
The fact that the steady-state phasor voltage equations are identical for the as and
qs variables was actually known beforehand because (3.8-9) tells us that for
0(0) == 0 the phasors representing the as variables are equal to the phasors represent-
ing the qs variables in all asynchronously rotating reference frames; therefore, the as
and qs circuits must have the same impedance.

Example 3D It is instructive to derive the phasor voltage equation for the RL

circuit used in Example 3B for balanced steady-state conditions. Three meth-
ods of deriving this equation are described in the previous section. We will use
all three approaches to arrive at the same steady-state, phasor voltage equa-
tion. As the first approach, the as voltage equation may be written for the
example RL circuit using steady-state notation as

(3D-l )

For balanced conditions we have

(30-2)

Thus, (30-1) may be written as

(30-3)

For steady-state conditions, p is replaced by jw e , whereupon (30-3) can be

written in phasor form as

(30-4)
132 REFERENCE-FRAME THEORY

Comparing (30-4) with (3.9-2) and (3.9-4), we see that

s; == (Ls - M)las (30-5)

and

(3D-6)
In the two remaining derivations we will make use of the qs and ds voltage
equations in the arbitrary reference frame. Thus, from (3B-13) and (3B-14) we
obtain

vqs == rsiqs + WAds + PAqs (30-7)

Vds == rsids - wAqs + pAds (30-8)

where

Aqs == iL, - M)i qs (30-9)

Ads == (Ls - M)ids (30-10)

For the second method, we will start with either the qs- or ds-voltage equation
in the asynchronously rotating reference frame. Thus, using steady-state
notation, (30-7) may be written
(3D-II)
For balanced steady-state conditions, p may be replaced by j( We - w) and
from (3.8-8), Ads = jAqs. Hence

(3D-12)
Clearly, (3.9-5) and (3.9-7) combine to give (3D-12). Substituting for Aqs
yields

(30-13)
Because in all asynchronously rotating reference frames with 0(0) == 0

(30-14)

we have arrived at the same result as in the first case where we started with the
as-voltage equation.
For the third approach, let us write the voltage equations in the synchro-
nously rotating reference frame. Thus, using steady-state notation, (30-7)
and (30-8) may be written in the synchronously rotating reference frame as

V;s = rsI;s + weA~s + pA~s (30-15)

V~s == rsI~s - weA~s + pA~s (30-16)

For balanced steady-state conditions the variables in the synchronously rotat-

ing reference frame are constants; therefore pA~s and pAds are zero. Therefore,
 VARIABLES OBSERVED FROM SEVERAL FRAMES OF REFERENCE 133

(30-15) and (30-16) may be written as

V;s == rs/~s + we(Ls - M)/~s (30-17)

V~s == rs/~s - (tJe(Ls - M)/;.\. (30-18)
wherein A~s and Ads have been written as a product of inductance and current.
Now, (3.8-14) is
(3D-19)

Thus

(3D-20)

Now
(30-21 )

and
(3D-22)

Substituting (3D-21) and (30-22) into (30-20) yields the desired equation:

(3D-23)

3.10 VARIABLES OBSERVED FROM SEVERAL

FRAMES OF REFERENCE

It is instructive to observe the waveform of the variables of a stationary 3-phase

series RL circuit in the arbitrary reference frame and in commonly used reference
frames. For this purpose we will assume that both r, and L.\. are diagonal matrices,
each with equal nonzero elements, and the applied voltages are of the form

Vas == V"iV.\. cosro.r (3.10-1 )

vs, = V"iv., COS (Wet _ 2;) (3.10-2)

Veo' = V"iv., cos (Wet + 2

3
1t) (3.10-3)

where We is an unspecified constant. The currents, which are assumed to be zero at

t == 0, may be expressed as

· _ -1-'
las -
V1vs [-e -tit cos + COS (
wet)- ] (X (X (3.10-4)
2.,.
·
lb.. = V1 V
5
IZ"lo [
_e-
t I (2n)
{COS rx + 3 + cos (wet - rx - 3
2n) ] (3.10-5)

V1v~ [-e -tlr

· _W
i,s - cos (2n)
rx - 3 + cos (wet - rx + 3
2n)] (3.10-6)
134 REFERENCE-FRAME THEORY

where

Z, == r, +jca.L, (3.10-7)
Ls
r ==- (3.10-8)
r.
-I weLs
(X == tan -- (3.10-9)
r,

It may at first appear necessary to solve the voltage equations in the arbitrary
reference frame in order to obtain the expression for the currents in the arbitrary
reference frame. This is unnecessary because once the solution is known in one
reference frame, it is known in all reference frames. In the example at hand, this
may be accomplished by transforming (3.10-4)-(3.10-6) to the arbitrary reference
frame. For illustrative purposes, let co be an unspecified constant with 0(0) == 0;
then 0 == tot and in the arbitrary reference frame we have

iqs = is~s {_e- t / t cos (wt - IX) + cos [(we - w)t - IX]} (3.10-10)

ids = is~s {_e- t / t sin (rot - IX) - sin [(we - w)t - IX]) (3.10-11)

Clearly, the state of the electric system is independent of the frame of reference
from which it is observed. Although the variables will appear differently in each
reference frame, they will exhibit the same mode of operation (transient of steady
state) regardless of the reference frame. In general, (3.10-10) and (3.10-11) contain
two balanced sets. One, which represents the electric transient, decays exponentially
at a frequency corresponding to the instantaneous angular velocity of the arbitrary
reference frame. In this set, the qs variable leads the ds variable by 90° when OJ > 0
and lags by 90° when co < O. The second balanced set, which represents the steady-
state response, has a constant amplitude with a frequency corresponding to the diff-
erence in the angular velocity of the voltages applied to the stationary circuits and the
angular velocity of the arbitrary reference frame. In this set, the qs variable lags the
ds by 90° when OJ < We and leads by 90° when W > We. This of course leads to the
concept of negative frequency when relating phasors that represent qs and ds van-
abIes by (3.8-8).
There are two frames of reference that do not contain both balanced sets. In the
stationary reference frame we have W == 0 and i~s == ias. The exponentially decaying
balanced set becomes an exponential decay, and the constant amplitude balanced set
varies at We. In the synchronously rotating reference frame where W == We, the elec-
tric transients are represented by an exponentially decaying balanced set varying at
We and the constant amplitude set becomes constant.
The waveforms of the system variables in various reference frames are shown by
computer simulation in Figs. 3.10-1-3.10-3 [8]. The voltages of the form given by
 VARIABLES OBSERVED FROM SEVERAL FRAMES OF REFERENCE 135

~ ~O.Ols

v:U,V

10

i~,A 0

-10
120
90
60
p,W 30
o
-30
Figure 3.10..1 Variables of a station-
ary 3-phase system in the stationary
(J), radls 0 .
• -------------- reference frame.

(3.10-1)-(3.10-3) are applied to the 3-phase system with Vs == lO/V2 V,

r, == 0.216 fl, and oi.L, == I.09fl with We == 377 rad/s. The response, for t > 0, of
the electric system in the stationary reference frame is shown in Fig. 3.10-1. Because
we have selected 0(0) == 0, we obtain las == f~~ and the plots of v~s and i~s are Vas and
ias , respectively. The variables for the same mode of operation are shown in the syn-
chronously rotating reference frame in Fig. 3.10-2. Note, from (3.10-1)-(3.10-3),
that we have selected Oev(O) == 0; thus from (3.7-5) and (3.7-6) with 0(0) == 0, we
obtain v~s == 10 V and vds == O. In Fig. 3.10-3, with 8(0) := 0 the speed of the refe-
rence frame is switched from its original value of - 377 rad/s to zero and then
ramped to 377 rad/s.
There are several features worthy of note. The waveform of the instantaneous
electric power is the same in all cases. The electric transient is very evident in the
waveforms of the instantaneous electric power and the currents in the synchronously
rotating reference frame (Fig. 3.10-2); and because vds is zero, i~J is related to the
power by a constant (3/2 v~s)' In Fig. 3.10-3 we selected Oev(O) == 0 and O{O) == O.
The voltages were applied and we observed the solution of the differential equations
in the reference frame rotating clockwise at (U e (OJ == -we). The reference frame
136 REFERENCE-FRAME THEORY

10

~ JE-0.01 s

Vd-t, V 1-------------
0...

10
ih,A
o

377[
III, radls 0

Figure 3.10-2 Variables of a stationary 3-phase system in synchronously rotating reference

frame.

speed was then stepped from - 377 radls to zero, whereupon the differential equa-
tions were solved in the stationary reference frame. However, when switching from
one reference frame to another, the variables must be continuous. Therefore, after
the switching occurs the solution continues using the stationary reference frame dif-
ferential equations with the initial values determined by the instantaneous values of
the variables in the previous reference frame (co = -we) at the time of switching. It
is important to note the change in frequency of the variables as the reference frame
speed is ramped from zero to We. Here the differential equations being solved are
continuously changing while the variables remain continuous. When the reference
frame speed reaches synchronous speed, the variables have reached steady state;
therefore they will be constant corresponding to their values at the instant ill
becomes equal to We' In essence we have applied a balanced 3-phase set of voltages
to a symmetrical RL circuit, and in Fig. 3.10-3 we observed the actual variables from
various reference frames by "jumping" or "running" from one reference frame to
another.
 REFERENCES 137

ids, A
lOt
0

-10
120
90
60
p, W 30
o
-30
Figure 3.10-3 Variables of a station-
377 ary 3-phase system. First with W =
-We, then W is stepped to zero followed
(I), radls 0
by a ramp change in reference frame
-377--~ speed to W = We.

REFERENCES
[1] R. H. Park, Two-Reaction Theory of Synchronous Machines-Generalized Method of
Analysis, Part I, AlEE Transactions, Vol. 48, July 1929, pp. 716-727.
[2] H. C. Stanley, An Analysis of the Induction Motor, AlEE Transactions, Vol. 57
(Supplement), 1938, pp. 751-755.
[3] G. Kron, Equivalent Circuits of Electric Machinery, John Wiley and Sons, New York,
1951.
[4) D. S. Brereton, D. G. Lewis, and C. G. Young, Representation of Induction Motor Loads
During Power System Stability Studies, AlEE Transactions, Vol.76, August 1957, pp. 451-
461.
[5] P. C. Krause and C. H. Thomas, Simulation of Symmetrical Induction Machinery, IEEE
Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. 84, November 1965, pp. 1038-1053.
[6] P.C. Krause, F. Nozari, T. L. Skvarenina, and D. W. Olive, The Theory of Neglecting Stator
Transients, IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. 98, January/
February 1979, pp. 141-148.
138 REFERENCE-FRAME THEORY

[7] E. Clarke, Circuit Analysis of A-C Power Systems, Vol. I-Symmetrical and Related
Components, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1943.
[8] C. M. Ong, DynamicSimulation ofElectricMachinery, Prentice-Hall PTR, Upper Saddle
River, NJ, 1998.

PROBLEMS

1 The transformation for a 2-phase set to the arbitrary reference frame is

f qds = K2sfabs

where

(fqds)T = [fqs fds J

(fabs)T = [las fbs]

K 2s =
COS
.
e sin () ]
[ sin () - cos ()

where () is defined by (3.3-5). Express the voltage equations in the arbitrary reference
frame for a 2-phase resistive circuit if (a) r a = rb = r, and if (b) r a =1= re.
2 Using the transformation given in Problem 1, express the voltage equations in the
arbitrary reference frame for a 2-phase inductive circuit if (a) La = Lb = L and if
(b) La =F Lb·
3 Using the transformation given in Problem 1, express the current equations in the
arbitrary reference frame for a 2-phase capacitive circuit if (a) Ca = Cb = C and if
(b) c, i- c:
4 The phases of a 3-phase circuit consist of equal resistances, equal inductances, and equal
capacitances connected in series. The phases are not coupled. Write the voltage equations
in the arbitrary reference frame and draw the equivalent circuit. You should be able to use
results from Problems 1, 2, and 3.
5 Repeat Problem 4 for the circuit elements in each phase connected in parallel.
6 Show that for a symmetrical 2-phase circuit the average power expressed in as and bs
variables is equal to the average power expressed in qs and ds variables.
7 Clarke's transformation may be written as

flXpo = Cf abcs
where
 PROBLEMS 139

8 A transformation that is sometimes used in the case of synchronous machines is one

0
where fds leads fqs in Fig. 3.3-1 by 90 with OJ == W r.
(a) Express the transformation.
(b) Using this transformation, write the voltage equations for a 3-phase inductive
circuit.
9 The inductance matrix that describes the self- and mutual inductances between the stator
windings of a z-phase, salient-pole, synchronous machine is given below.

Evaluate K;.\'L s (K;.J -I , where K 2s is given in Problem 1.

10 If A is one reference frame and B another, show that (AKB)-I == BKA.
11 Equations (3.7-1)-(3.7-3) form an abc sequence. Express an acb sequence and transform
this set to the arbitrary reference frame using (3.3-1). Express ~dos(W == we) and
r;Jos(w == -we).
12 Devise a transformation that yields only constants when W = We for a balanced 3-phase
set with a phase sequence of acb.
13 Relate Fh." and i: to Fqs and i; for a balanced 3-phase set with a time sequence of abc.
14 For steady-state balanced conditions the total 3-phase power and reactive power may be
expressed as

P, == 3V"I." cos [Oel' (0) - Oe;(O)]

Qe == 3Vfl s sin [Oev(O) - Oei(O))

Show that the following expressions are equal to those given above:

3
r. == 2(Vqslqs + Vd.'lld.'l)
3
Qe == 2(Vqslds - Vdslqs)

15 Write the expressions for the currents in Figs. 3.10-1 and 3.10-2.
16 Assume the steady-state abc variables are of the form

Fa. ==
fi V2Fa cos wet
r,.. = V2Fb cos ( wet - 2 1t) 3

F,... = V2F,.cos ( wet + 21t)

3

where Fa, Fs, and Fe are unequal constants. Show that this unbalanced set of abc
variables forms 2-phase balanced sets of qs and ds variables in the arbitrary reference
140 REFERENCE-FRAME THEORY

frame with the arguments of (wet - 0) and (wet + 0). Note the form of the qs and ds
variables when W = We and W == -We.
17 Repeat Problem 16 with

Fas = v2Fs cos (Wet + ¢a)

Fbs = v2Fs cos (Wet + ¢b)
Fes = v2Fs cos (Wet + ¢e)

where <P a, <Pb' and lPc are unequal constants.

18 It is often suggested that K, should be changed so that (Ks ) T == (Ks ) -I . For example, if

COS 0 cos (0 - ~) cos (0 +~)]

K. = Ii [
sinO
1
sin (0
I
-~) sin (0 +~)
I
Ji Vi Ji
then (K s ) T = (K s ) -I . Show that this is true. Also, show that in this case