BASIC STANDARD SIGNAL GENERATOR (SINE WAVE):

The sine wave generator represents the largest single category of signal generator. This instrument
covers a frequency range from a few Hertz to many Giga-Hertz. The sine wave generator in its
simplest form is given in Fig. 8.1.
The simple sine wave generator consists of two basic blocks, an oscillator and an attenuator. The
performance of the generator depends on the success of these two main parts. The accuracy of the
frequency, stability, and freedom from distortion depend on the design of the oscillator, while the
amplitude depends on the design of the attenuator.

AF Sine And Square Wave Generator:

The block diagram of an AF Sine-Square wave audio oscillator is illustrated in Fig. 8.4.

The signal generator is called an oscillator. A Wien bridge oscillator is used in this generator. The
Wien bridge oscillator is the best for the audio frequency range. The frequency of oscillations can
be changed by varying the capacitance in the oscillator. The frequency can also be changed in steps
by switching in resistors of different values.
The output of the Wien bridge oscillator goes to the function switch. The function switch directs the
oscillator output either to the sine wave amplifier or to the square wave shaper. At the output, we
get either a square or sine wave. The output is varied by means of an attenuator.
The instrument generates a frequency ranging from 20 Hz to 20 KHz, continuously variable in 5
decades with overlapping ranges. The output sine wave amplitude can be varied from 5 mV to 5 V
(rms).The output is taken through a push-pull amplifier. For low output, the impedance is 600W.
The square wave amplitudes can be varied from 0 – 20 V (peak). It is possible to adjust the
symmetry of the square wave from 30 – 70%. The instrument requires only 7 W of power at 220 V
– 50 Hz.

Oscillator Circuit:
Wien Bridge Oscillator:
 40K
20K
20K
40K +12V

μF
0.01μF
3 7

01
6

0.
2 4
–12V Output
200K 470K

The Wien Bridge Oscillator is so called because the circuit is based on a frequency-selective form
of the Wheatstone bridge circuit. The Wien Bridge oscillator is a two-stage RC coupled amplifier
circuit that has good stability at its resonant frequency, low distortion and is very easy to tune
making it a popular circuit as an audio frequency oscillator but the phase shift of the output signal is
considerably different from the previous phase shift RC Oscillator.

The Wien Bridge Oscillator uses a feedback circuit consisting of a series RC circuit connected
with a parallel RC of the same component values producing a phase delay or phase advance circuit
depending upon the frequency. At the resonant frequency ƒr the phase shift is 0o. Consider the
circuit below.
Operation:

The output of the operational amplifier is fed back to both the inputs of the amplifier. One part of
the feedback signal is connected to the inverting input terminal (negative or degenerative feedback)
via the resistor divider network of R1 and R2 which allows the amplifiers voltage gain to be
adjusted within narrow limits.
The other part, which forms the series and parallel combinations of R and C forms the feedback
network and are fed back to the non-inverting input terminal (positive or regenerative feedback) via
the RC Wien Bridge network and it is this positive feedback combination that gives rise to the
oscillation.
The RC network is connected in the positive feedback path of the amplifier and has zero phase shift
a just one frequency. Then at the selected resonant frequency, ( ƒr ) the voltages applied to the
inverting and non-inverting inputs will be equal and “in-phase” so the positive feedback will cancel
out the negative feedback signal causing the circuit to oscillate.
In a Wein bridge oscillator, when lower to higher frequencies are applied, at a particular frequency,
the value of resistance and capacitor reactance becomes equal to each other. At this point, the
maximum output voltage is observed. This frequency where maximum voltage is derived is known
as the “Resonance Frequency” of the Wein bridge oscillator and is denoted as fr.
The formula for the calculation of resonant frequency is as follow

When

At the resonant frequency, the phase shift between input and output will be zero. The magnitude of
the output voltage will be one-third of the input voltage.

The voltage gain of the amplifier circuit MUST be equal too or greater than three “Gain = 3” for
oscillations to start because as we have seen above, the input is 1/3 of the output. This value,
( Av ≥ 3 ) is set by the feedback resistor network, R1 and R2 and for a non-inverting amplifier this
is given as the ratio 1+(R1/R2).
Also, due to the open-loop gain limitations of operational amplifiers, frequencies above 1MHz are
unachievable without the use of special high frequency op-amps.
Comparator Circuit:
A comparator is an electronic circuit, which compares the two inputs that are applied to it and
produces an output. The output value of the comparator indicates which of the inputs is greater or
lesser. Please note that comparator falls under non-linear applications of ICs.
An op-amp consists of two input terminals and hence an op-amp based comparator compares the
two inputs that are applied to it and produces the result of comparison as the output. This chapter
discusses about op-amp based comparators.

Types of Comparators

Comparators are of two types : Inverting and Non-inverting.

Non-Inverting Comparator
A non-inverting comparator is an op-amp based comparator for which a reference voltage is applied
to its inverting terminal and the input voltage is applied to its non-inverting terminal. This op-amp
based comparator is called as non-inverting comparator because the input voltage, which has to be
compared is applied to the non-inverting terminal of the op-amp.
The circuit diagram of a non-inverting comparator is shown in the following figure
The operation of a non-inverting comparator is very simple. It produces one of the two
values, +Vsat+Vsat and −Vsat−Vsat at the output based on the values of input voltage Vi and the
reference voltage +Vref.

Operation:
The operation of a non-inverting comparator is explained below −
It is called a non-inverting comparator circuit as the sinusoidal input signal Vin is applied to the
non-inverting terminal. The fixed reference voltage Vref is connected to the inverting terminal of
the op-amp.  When the value of the input voltage Vin is greater than the reference voltage Vref the
output voltage Vo goes to positive saturation. This is because the voltage at the non-inverting input
is greater than the voltage at the inverting input.  When the value of the input voltage Vin is lesser
than the reference voltage Vref, the output voltage Vo goes to negative saturation. This is because
the voltage at the non-inverting input is smaller than the voltage at the inverting input. Thus, output
voltage Vo changes from positive saturation point to negative saturation point whenever the
difference between Vin and Vref changes.  The comparator can be called a voltage level detector,
as for a fixed value of Vref, the voltage level of Vin can be detected. The circuit diagram shows the
diodes D1and D2. These two diodes are used to protect the op-amp from damage due to increase in
input voltage. These diodes are called clamp diodes as they clamp the differential input voltages to
either 0.7V or -0.7V.
The following figure shows the input and output waveforms of a non-inverting comparator, when
the reference voltage is zero volts.

Square Wave Generator:

When the capacitor voltage becomes larger than VREF, the output voltage will swing to the negative
supply voltage.

R3
+VCC

- Vout
VRef
+
C -VCC R1

R2

Multivibrators: There are three types of multivibrators : bistables or flip flops, which provide an
output pulse for every two input trigger signals; monostables which give a timed pulse out for a
trigger input; and astable or free running multivibrators, which give a string of pulses. The period
and pulse widths of these circuits can be readily adjusted by timing resistors and capacitors. They
are usually made as integrated circuits, and are widely used in industry. Astable Multivibrator The
astable or free running multivibrator is widely used for the generation of pulses. It can be made to
produce either square wave or pulses depending on the choice of circuit components. A typical
free-running multivibrator is shown in Fig. 22.20.

Operation of Astable Multivibrator:

When Vcc is applied, the collector current of the transistors increase. As the collector current
depends upon the base current,

The VCC supply of circuit is 6v. The circuit connection is shown in above. Assume the transistor
TR1 is cut-off and collector voltage is 6. While the transistor TR2 is in saturation conditions (turn
ON position). The plate A of capacitor C1 is also rise towards 6 volt and it is connected to collector
of transistor TR1 which is in cut-off region. Hence TR1 is in cut-off, the current through R1 is zero
so no voltage drops across the R1 resistor. TR1.

The base of transistor TR1 is connected with the plate B of the transistor C1 and at 0.6 volt the
transistor TR2 is in saturation region. The potential of capacitor is +5.4 volts.
Since the TR2 is in saturation region the capacitor C2 starts to charge through
resistor R2 towards the supply voltage Vcc. When the capacitor voltage reaches at 0.6, it bias
transistor TR1. And the transistor TR1 starts conduction.
the TR1 is saturation and the plate A was at 6 volt, immediately falls to 0.6 volt. This rapid fall of
voltage the capacitor C1 becomes -5.4v (a reverse charge). And this negative voltage turns “OFF”
the transistor TR2, One unstable state.
The transistor TR2 becomes turn “OFF” so capacitor C1 start charging in the opposite direction
towards +6volt via resistor R3. Thus the base of transistor TR2 is going more positive
towards Vcc with a time constant C1 x R3.
However the capacitors never reach supply voltage, because when it get 0.6 volt positive
transistor TR2 turns into saturation. This processes will be continue again, but capacitor C2 taking
the base of transistor TR1 to -5.4v while charging up via resistor R2. The amplitude of output is
almost same as Vcc and the time period is determined by the time constant of the RC networks
connected across the base terminals of the transistors.
If the time constant of the circuit is produced by C1 x R3 and C2 x R2 is same in the base, the
mark-to-space ratio ( t1/t2 ) will be equal to one-to-one making the output waveform symmetrical
in shape. By changing R2, R3 or C1, C2 the mark-to-space ratio and therefore the frequency can be
altered.

The Astable multivibrator consists of two cross-coupled RC amplifiers.

 The circuit has two unstable states
o When V1 = LOW and V2 = HIGH then Q1 ON and Q2 OFF
o When V1= HIGH and V2 = LOW then Q1 OFF and Q2 ON
 In this R1 = R4 , R2 = R3, R1 should be greater than R2
 C1=C2
ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATORS PERIODIC TIME
ON or OFF time -The time for one transistor may be ON or OFF is given by:
ON time for Q1 (or “OFF” time for Q2) is TR1 = 0.694 R2 C1
OFF time for Q1 (or “ON” time for Q2) is TR2 = 0.694 R3 C2
Therefore, the total time period of the square wave is T = T1+ T2 = 0.694 (R2 C1+ R3 C2)
Where the resistors R2 = R3 = R and capacitors C1 = C2 = C,
T = 0.694 (RC + RC) =1.4 RC seconds.

FREQUENCY OF THE SQUARE WAVE IS

f =1/T
=0.7/RC Hz

The resistor R is in ohms and capacitor C in farad. And this square wave is frequency is known as
“Pulse Repetition Frequency”.

Waveforms:
The output waveforms at the collectors of Q1 and Q2 are shown in the following figures.

Advantages
The advantages of using an astable multivibrator are as follows −

 No external triggering required.

 Circuit design is simple
 Inexpensive
  Can function continuously

Disadvantages
The drawbacks of using an astable multivibrator are as follows −

 Energy absorption is more within the circuit.

 Output signal is of low energy.
 Duty cycle less than or equal to 50% can’t be achieved.

Function Generator:
Function generator is an instrument capable of producing various waveforms such as triangular
wave, pulse wave, sinusoidal wave, square wave, and also ramp wave. Any of these waveforms can
be generated with the desired frequency and amplitude ranges. The DC offset adjustment feature is
also incorporated. A number of outputs of the generator can be obtained at the same time. The basic
block diagram of a function generator is illustrated in Figure 12.7.

The function generator consists of an integrator, Schmitt trigger, sine-wave converter, and
attenuator. The integrator circuit produces a triangular waveform at its output. This waveform is
basically a negative-going ramp signal. The output signal of the integrator circuit is fed to the
Schmitt trigger circuit as well as to the sine-wave converter circuit. The Schmitt trigger converts
this triangular signal into a square wave while the sine-wave converter converts it into sinusoidal
waveform. Let us discuss each of these blocks in detail.

The block diagram of a function generator is illustrated in Fig. 8.5. Usually the frequency is
controlled by varying the capacitor in the LC or RC circuit. In this instrument the frequency is
controlled by varying the magnitude of current which drives the integrator. The instrument
produces sine, triangular and square waves with a frequency range of 0.01 Hz to 100 kHz.
Operation:
The frequency controlled voltage regulates two current sources. The upper current source supplies
constant current to the integrator whose output voltage increases linearly with time, according to the
equation of the output signal voltage.

An increase or decrease in the current increases or decreases the slope of the output voltage and
hence controls the frequency. The voltage comparator multivibrator changes states at a pre-
determined maximum level of the integrator output voltage. This change cuts off the upper current
supply and switches on the lower current supply. The lower current source supplies a reverse
current to the integrator, so that its output decreases linearly with time. When the output reaches a
pre-determined minimum level, the voltage comparator again changes state and switches on the
upper current source.
The output of the integrator is a triangular waveform whose frequency is determined by the
magnitude of the current supplied by the constant current sources.
The comparator output delivers a square wave voltage of the same frequency. The resistance diode
network alters the slope of the triangular wave as its amplitude changes and produces a sine wave
with less than 1% distortion.

Schmitt Trigger Circuit:

A Schmitt trigger circuit is also called a regenerative comparator circuit.  The circuit is designed
with a positive feedback and hence will have a regenerative action which will make the output
switch levels. Also, the use of positive voltage feedback instead of a negative feedback, aids the
feedback voltage to the input voltage, instead of opposing it.
The purpose of the Schmitt trigger is to convert any regular or irregular shaped input waveform into
a square wave output voltage or pulse. Thus, it can also be called a squaring circuit.

If Vin is less than Vref output will remain +Vsat. When input vin exceeds Vref = +Vsat the output
switches from +Vsat to –Vsat.

The output will remain –Vsat as long as Vin > Vref If Vin < Vref i.e. Vin becomes more negative
than –Vsat then again output switches to +Vsat and so on. Input and output waveforms of Schmitt
Trigger are given below.
In a Schmitt trigger, the voltages at which the output switches from +Vsat to –Vsat or vice versa are
called upper threshold voltage (VUT) or Upper threshold point, UTP and lower threshold voltage
(VLT) or lower threshold point, LTP. The difference between the two threshold voltages is called
hysteresis, a dead band condition

i1 Ri i2 RF
Vin Va

+VCC

- Vout

-VCC

The working of a Schmitt trigger circuit is shown in Figure 12.9. The inverting input terminal is at
ground potential.

The upper current source supplies a constant current to the capacitor and the capacitor voltage
increases linearly. When the positive slope of the ramp voltage reaches the upper limit set by the
internal circuit components, the Schmitt trigger changes state. The trigger circuit output becomes
negative and reverses the condition of the current switch. The capacitor discharges linearly,
controlled by the lower current source. When the negative ramp reaches a predetermined lower
level, the Schmitt trigger switches back to its original state. The entire process is then repeated. The
ratio i1/i2 determines the duty cycle, and is controlled by symmetry control. The sum of i1 and i2
determines the frequency. The size of the capacitor is selected by the multiplier switch. The unit is
powered by an internal supply that provides regulated voltages for all stages of the instrument.

Applying KCL at Va
Case-1: Assuming

Case-2: Assuming
Sine-Wave Converter:
The triangular waveform from the integrator circuit is fed into the sine-wave converter circuit. This
circuit is responsible for converting the triangular waveform into a sinusoidal wave. This can be
done using diodes and resistors shown in Figure 12.10.

In the figure, it is evident that three positive and three negative bias voltage levels are obtained
when the loading is done using six diodes and six resistors. This causes the output voltage slope to
change thrice in every quarter cycle, thereby producing a better sine wave.