RAPID CHARGING OF ELECTRICAL VEHICLES FED FROM

THE RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCE

ABSTRACT

The use of electric cars has been increasing rapidly because they are good for the environment and
the cost of regular fuels like gasoline and diesel keeps going up. However, one downside of electric
cars is that they take a long time to charge. This paper looks at how long it takes to wirelessly
charge an electric car using a special converter. The car's battery gets its energy from solar power,
which is a reliable, cheap, and low-maintenance source. The paper also talks about the electronic
part and how it's controlled. To control the converter, they used a special system called an artificial
intelligence-based adaptive neuro fuzzy interface system (ANFIS) controller. They did all this
using a software called MATLAB SIMULINK 2018b. The results showed that a lithium-ion
battery can reach 70% charge in 55 minutes, and the car can still work well even if there are
disturbances or changes in conditions.
Key words: Electric vehicles, Solar PV system, dual active bridge DC-DC converter, ANFIS
controller, fuzzy rules, induction motor, lithium-ion battery
 CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
A. Electric Vehicles:
Electric vehicles (EVs) have a fascinating history spanning over a century. In the 19th
century, inventors like Robert Anderson and Thomas Davenport made significant strides in
electric-propelled transportation. EVs gained popularity in the late 19th and early 20th
centuries due to their quiet operation and environmentally friendly attributes. However, the
emergence of electric starters for internal combustion engine vehicles and the discovery of
abundant petroleum reserves caused a decline in interest in EVs. Renewed enthusiasm for
electric mobility emerged in the late 20th century, driven by concerns about environmental
pollution and dependence on oil. Advancements in battery technology, along with the
introduction of groundbreaking models like General Motors' EV1 in 1996, set the stage for the
modern EV landscape. Today, EVs are experiencing a remarkable surge in popularity,
supported by government efforts to phase out traditional combustion-engine vehicles. The
future holds immense promise for electric mobility with ongoing developments in autonomous
driving and the integration of renewable energy, revolutionizing the transportation sector. The
usage percentage of electric vehicles (EVs) has experienced significant growth globally from
2000 to 2021. Initially, EV market share was limited to niche vehicles and experimental
prototypes. However, advancements in battery technology, environmental concerns, and
government incentives have spurred the adoption of EVs. While specific percentage values for
each year are unavailable, the mid-2010s witnessed a notable acceleration in EV adoption with
the introduction of mass-market models like the Nissan Leaf, Tesla Model S, and Chevrolet
Volt. Government policies promoting electric mobility, coupled with expanding charging
infrastructure, improved driving range, and more affordable EV options, have further fueled
this growth. For precise usage percentage data for each year, it is advisable to consult up-to-
date research from reputable organizations specializing in EV studies, as the market has been
rapidly evolving, and figures may vary by region and country.
Electric vehicles (EVs) possess numerous advantages over traditional internal combustion
engine (ICE) vehicles. EVs offer significant environmental benefits by producing zero tailpipe
emissions, reducing air pollution, and combating climate change. They also enable the
integration of renewable energy sources, further decreasing reliance on fossil fuels. In terms of
energy efficiency, EVs have higher overall efficiency due to the electric motor's ability to
convert a greater percentage of energy from the grid into propulsion. Additionally, regenerative
braking allows EVs to recover and store energy during deceleration, enhancing efficiency
further. EVs provide cost savings through lower operating costs, such as reduced fuel expenses
and maintenance requirements. Tax incentives and subsidies further incentivize EV adoption.
EVs offer exceptional performance with instant torque, providing quick acceleration and a
smooth driving experience. Advanced features like regenerative braking and smart
connectivity are also commonly integrated into EVs. They contribute to noise pollution
reduction through their silent operation, enhancing comfort for passengers and reducing noise
in urban environments. Moreover, EVs promote energy independence and grid resilience by
diversifying energy sources and serving as mobile energy storage units, supporting the
electricity grid during peak demand periods and emergencies. While challenges remain,
ongoing technological advancements and supportive policies continue to enhance the
advantages of electric vehicles.
Electric vehicles (EVs) encompass certain disadvantages pertaining to the charging process
and battery limitations. The charging duration of an EV typically exceeds that of a conventional
vehicle, even with the provision of fast-charging alternatives, thereby posing inconvenience
for long-distance travel and individuals with time constraints. Furthermore, challenges persist
with regard to the availability and accessibility of charging infrastructure, particularly in
regions where the number of charging stations remains limited, consequently impacting the
convenience associated with EV ownership. An additional drawback resides in the limited
driving range exhibited by EVs in comparison to their internal combustion engine counterparts,
consequently rendering long-distance travel a more intricate undertaking. Battery-related
concerns encompass the progressive degradation experienced over time, manifesting as
reduced range and performance, alongside the eventual requirement for costly battery
replacements. The production and disposal of batteries likewise engender environmental
considerations. However, the persistent endeavors towards refining battery technology,
augmenting charging infrastructure investments, and refining charging speeds collectively
strive to mitigate these disadvantages and enhance the overall landscape of EV ownership.

B. PV system
Renewable energy sources, encompassing solar, wind, hydropower, biomass, and
geothermal energy, harbor a multitude of inherent advantages vis-à-vis conventional energy
sources. Notably, they boast negligible environmental ramifications, yielding scant greenhouse
gas emissions and abating air pollution. By dint of diversifying the energy mix and attenuating
reliance on external resources, renewable energy fortifies energy security and engenders
autonomy. Moreover, the profusion and sustainable nature of these sources ensure perpetuity
and attenuate dependence on finite reserves. Concurrently, the ever-declining costs of
renewables foster cost competitiveness while proliferating job opportunities and stimulating
economic growth. Distributed renewable energy systems bolster grid stability while affording
localities the benefits of localized energy generation and avenues for investment. Pioneering
technological advancements propel innovation and augment efficiency within the renewable
energy landscape. The embrace of renewable energy sources emerges as an indispensable
undertaking, ushering in a sustainable future, countering climate change, and facilitating the
cultivation of an unblemished, resilient energy infrastructure.
Solar photovoltaic (PV) systems offer a myriad of advantages over conventional energy
systems. By harnessing the inexhaustible power of the sun, solar PV systems provide a
renewable and sustainable energy source while concurrently mitigating environmental impacts
through the emission-free generation of electricity. Facilitating energy self-sufficiency, solar
PV systems empower individuals and communities to attain autonomy in electricity generation,
thereby reducing dependency on centralized power grids. The installation of solar panels
facilitates considerable long-term savings, as the cost of electricity generation is greatly
diminished. Furthermore, various financial incentives, including tax credits and grants, are
frequently available to promote the adoption of solar PV systems. With an extended operational
lifespan and minimal maintenance requirements, solar PV systems represent a reliable and
adaptable investment, capable of addressing diverse energy needs in various contexts. The
proliferation of the solar industry engenders job creation, bolsters local economies, and fortifies
the resilience of power grids. Collectively, solar PV systems epitomize a sustainable,
economically viable, and ecologically conscious alternative to conventional energy systems,
fostering a transition towards a more sustainable future.
When electric vehicles (EVs) are fueled by solar energy, they offer numerous advantages.
Solar-powered EVs provide emission-free transportation, enhancing air quality and reducing
pollution. The synergy between solar energy and EVs is evident as solar panels generate
electricity during peak sunlight hours, aligning with optimal charging periods. This maximizes
the utilization of clean energy. Solar-powered EVs also result in cost savings by eliminating or
 reducing fuel costs. They promote energy independence, particularly in remote areas or during
power outages, as owners generate their own electricity. These vehicles contribute to a lower
environmental impact by reducing reliance on finite fossil fuels and avoiding associated
extraction and transportation risks. Solar-powered EVs help alleviate strain on the electricity
grid during peak demand, enhancing stability and efficiency. Overall, they represent a
sustainable transportation solution that supports the transition to cleaner energy sources.
Among all the other charging methods discussed in this paper, we are focusing on wireless
charging of electric vehicles (EVs). Utilizing a Dual Active Bridge (DAB) converter as the
wireless charging topology is an innovative technology that facilitates efficient power transfer
without the need for physical cables, based on the principle of mutual inductance. The DAB
converter, consisting of bridge arms with switches and inductors, connects the primary and
secondary sides of the system. The primary side converts AC power into high-frequency AC, while
the secondary side employs a resonant tank circuit for optimal power transfer. By controlling the
switching of the bridge arms, the DAB converter regulates power flow and induces a voltage in
the secondary side. This voltage is rectified and used to charge the EV's battery. Benefits include
higher efficiency, reduced charging time, and cable-free convenience. However, widespread
adoption may require further standardization and infrastructure development. Expert consultation
is recommended for detailed insights into the design, implementation, and limitations of wireless
charging systems using DAB converters.
Advanced AI-based ANFIS (Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy Inference System) control technology
is employed to regulate the DC-DC dual active bridge converter. ANFIS controller, combining
neural networks and fuzzy logic, is widely employed in the control of dual active bridge (DAB)
converters. ANFIS offers adaptive and self-learning capabilities, allowing it to optimize
performance by adapting to changing operating conditions. It effectively handles the DAB
converter's nonlinear characteristics and provides robust control in the face of uncertainties.
ANFIS controllers enhance efficiency, performance, and dynamic response, optimizing power
losses and achieving faster transient behavior. They also offer flexibility, adaptability, and
customization options, tailoring the DAB converter's control objectives. Leveraging ANFIS
controllers enables efficient and robust control of the DAB converter, enhancing its overall
performance in real-time applications.
 CHAPTER-2
ELECTRIC VEHICLES
History:
The history of electric vehicles (EVs) can be traced back to the early 19th century when inventors
like Robert Anderson and Thomas Davenport pioneered the development of some of the first
practical electric vehicles. These early EVs utilized non-rechargeable batteries and exhibited
limited range and speed, but they marked the initial steps toward harnessing electric power for
transportation. However, it wasn't until the late 19th and early 20th centuries that electric cars
started gaining popularity, especially among the affluent members of society.
During this time, companies like Thomas Edison's Electric Vehicle Company capitalized on the
growing interest in electric vehicles. Electric cars were considered more comfortable and cleaner
than their gasoline counterparts, and their quiet operation and absence of exhaust emissions made
them particularly appealing to urban dwellers. Edison himself believed that electric vehicles had
immense potential, and he worked on developing batteries that could offer improved performance
and range.
Despite the advantages of electric cars, they faced formidable competition from internal
combustion engine (ICE) vehicles. Gasoline-powered cars were becoming increasingly affordable
due to advancements in mass production techniques, notably exemplified by Henry Ford's Model
T. The discovery of large oil reserves and the consequent expansion of gas stations further
solidified the dominance of ICE vehicles. The widespread availability of gasoline and the ease of
refueling contributed to the convenience and popularity of gasoline cars, overshadowing the
electric alternatives.
The resurgence of electric vehicles began in the late 20th century as concerns regarding
environmental pollution and the limited supply of fossil fuels intensified. As a result, various
manufacturers embarked on the development of prototypes and experimental electric cars to
explore the feasibility of electric mobility. Companies such as General Motors, Toyota, and Nissan
played significant roles during this period.
However, it was Tesla Motors, founded in 2003 by entrepreneur Elon Musk, that revolutionized
the electric vehicle industry. Tesla's innovative approach and unwavering commitment to
advancing electric vehicles propelled the industry into a new era. The company's introduction of
high-performance, long-range electric vehicles captured the public's attention and shattered
preconceived notions about the capabilities of electric cars. The Tesla Roadster, unveiled in 2008,
showcased impressive acceleration and a considerable driving range, setting new benchmarks for
electric vehicle performance.
Tesla's subsequent models, including the Model S, Model 3, Model X, and Model Y, further
solidified the brand's position as a leader in the electric vehicle market. These vehicles combined
sleek designs, cutting-edge technology, and extended driving ranges, appealing to a broader
consumer base. Tesla's success not only demonstrated the market potential for electric vehicles but
also inspired other automakers to invest heavily in electric vehicle research and development.
Recognizing the need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and combat climate change,
governments worldwide began implementing supportive policies and incentives to encourage
electric vehicle adoption. Tax credits, subsidies, and grants were introduced to make electric
vehicles more affordable for consumers, while investments in charging infrastructure aimed to
alleviate range anxiety and promote the convenience of electric vehicle ownership. These measures
created a favorable environment for electric vehicles to thrive and contributed to their mainstream
acceptance.
In recent years, electric vehicles have experienced significant growth in market share. Major
automakers have expanded their electric vehicle lineups, offering a wider range of models to cater
to different consumer preferences. Additionally, new startups have emerged, bringing fresh ideas
and competition to the electric vehicle market. This increased competition and technological
advancement have driven down costs and further improved electric vehicle performance and
driving range.
To support the widespread adoption of electric vehicles, substantial efforts have been made to
expand the charging infrastructure. Governments, businesses, and organizations have collaborated
to install public charging stations in urban areas, highways, and other strategic locations. The
development of fast-charging technologies has reduced charging times, making electric vehicles
even more practical for everyday
The concept of electric vehicles (EVs) revolves around utilizing electric power as the primary
source of propulsion instead of relying on internal combustion engines (ICE) that use fossil fuels.
The fundamental idea behind EVs is to reduce carbon emissions, minimize environmental impact,
and promote sustainable transportation.
At the core of the concept, EVs incorporate electric motors as their primary means of propulsion.
These motors convert electrical energy from rechargeable batteries into mechanical energy to drive
the vehicle's wheels. The batteries store electrical energy and provide power to the motor, allowing
the vehicle to move.
Electric vehicles offer several key advantages:

 Environmental Friendliness: EVs produce zero tailpipe emissions while operating on

electricity, which significantly reduces air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions. By
shifting away from fossil fuels, EVs help mitigate the adverse effects of climate change
and improve local air quality.
 Energy Efficiency: Electric motors are more efficient than internal combustion engines.
They convert a higher percentage of electrical energy from the battery into motion,
resulting in less energy waste. This energy efficiency translates to more miles traveled per
unit of energy consumed.
 Lower Operating Costs: EVs generally have lower operating costs compared to ICE
vehicles. The cost of electricity is typically lower than that of gasoline or diesel fuel,
 resulting in potential savings on fuel expenses. Additionally, EVs require less frequent
maintenance due to fewer moving parts and reduced wear on components like brakes.
 Noise Reduction: Electric motors produce less noise compared to the noisy combustion
engines found in traditional vehicles. This feature contributes to a quieter and more
peaceful driving experience, particularly in urban areas.
 Flexibility in Charging: EVs offer flexibility in charging options. They can be charged at
home using a standard electrical outlet or dedicated charging stations. Additionally, public
charging infrastructure continues to expand, providing convenient charging solutions for
EV owners while traveling or at various locations.
 Technological Advancements: The concept of EVs has spurred significant advancements
in battery technology, resulting in improved energy storage capacity, longer driving ranges,
and faster charging times. Continued research and development in the EV industry drive
innovation and lead to the discovery of more efficient and cost-effective solutions.

As the concept of electric vehicles evolves, there are different types of EVs available:
Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV):
A Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV) is an electric vehicle that operates solely on electricity stored
in rechargeable batteries. It does not have a traditional internal combustion engine (ICE) and relies
entirely on an electric motor for propulsion. BEVs offer several advantages and disadvantages
compared to conventional vehicles, which are worth considering:
Advantages of Battery Electric Vehicles:

 Environmental Friendliness: BEVs produce zero tailpipe emissions when running on

electricity. They help reduce greenhouse gas emissions and improve air quality,
contributing to a cleaner and healthier environment.
 Energy Efficiency: Electric motors are more efficient than internal combustion engines.
BEVs convert a higher percentage of electrical energy from the battery into propulsion,
resulting in better energy efficiency and reduced energy waste.
 Lower Operating Costs: BEVs have lower operating costs compared to conventional
vehicles. Electricity is generally cheaper than gasoline or diesel, resulting in potential
savings on fuel expenses. Additionally, BEVs require less maintenance due to fewer
moving parts and less wear on components like brakes.
 Quieter Operation: Electric motors operate silently, reducing noise pollution. This feature
provides a quieter and more peaceful driving experience, particularly in urban areas.
 Regenerative Braking: BEVs use regenerative braking technology, which recovers energy
during braking and deceleration. This energy is converted back into electrical energy and
stored in the battery, increasing overall efficiency and extending the driving range.
Disadvantages of Battery Electric Vehicles:
  Limited Driving Range: The driving range of BEVs is typically less compared to
conventional vehicles. Although battery technology has improved significantly, long-
distance travel may require planning for charging stops and longer charging times.
 Charging Infrastructure: The availability of charging infrastructure can be a limitation for
BEV owners. Public charging stations are not as widespread as gas stations, and charging
times can be longer, depending on the charging method used.
 Charging Time: Charging a BEV takes longer than refueling a conventional vehicle. While
fast-charging technology has improved, it still requires more time compared to filling a gas
tank. However, advancements in charging infrastructure and battery technology are
addressing this issue.
 Upfront Cost: BEVs generally have a higher upfront cost compared to conventional
vehicles. The cost of battery technology and electric drivetrain components contributes to
the initial purchase price. However, this cost difference is gradually decreasing as
technology advances and economies of scale improve.
 Battery Life and Recycling: BEV batteries have a limited lifespan and will eventually need
to be replaced. The cost of battery replacement can be significant. Additionally, battery
recycling and disposal need to be properly managed to minimize environmental impact.
Plug-in Electric Vehicle (PEV) :
A Plug-in Electric Vehicle (PEV) is a type of electric vehicle that combines an electric motor with
a rechargeable battery and a traditional internal combustion engine (ICE). PEVs offer the
flexibility of running on electricity from the battery, providing zero-emissions driving for shorter
trips, and utilizing the combustion engine for longer journeys. There are two main types of PEVs:
Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs) and Extended-Range Electric Vehicles (EREVs).
Advantages of Plug-in Electric Vehicles:
 Environmental Benefits: Like Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs), the electric mode of PEVs
produces zero tailpipe emissions, contributing to reduced greenhouse gas emissions and
improved air quality. PEVs offer the advantage of being able to drive in electric-only mode
for shorter distances, minimizing local pollution.
 Extended Driving Range: The inclusion of a combustion engine in PEVs provides an
extended driving range compared to pure electric vehicles. When the battery charge is
depleted, the vehicle can continue operating using the combustion engine, eliminating
concerns about range anxiety.
 Flexibility and Convenience: PEVs offer the convenience of being able to recharge the
battery using a standard electrical outlet or dedicated charging stations. They provide the
flexibility of using electricity for shorter trips, taking advantage of cost savings and
emissions reduction, while still having the option to rely on the combustion engine for
longer journeys without the need for frequent recharging.
 Reduced Fuel Consumption: PEVs significantly reduce fuel consumption compared to
conventional vehicles. By utilizing the electric mode for shorter trips, drivers can rely less
 on fossil fuels, resulting in potential savings on fuel costs and reduced dependence on
gasoline or diesel.
 Regenerative Braking: PEVs, like BEVs, incorporate regenerative braking technology.
This system converts kinetic energy into electrical energy during braking and deceleration,
which is then used to recharge the battery. This feature improves energy efficiency and
extends the vehicle's overall range.
Disadvantages of Plug-in Electric Vehicles:

 Limited Electric-Only Range: While PEVs offer extended range compared to BEVs, the
electric-only range is still limited compared to the total range of conventional vehicles.
This limitation necessitates a transition to the combustion engine when the battery charge
is depleted, reducing the overall electric driving experience.
 Complex Powertrain: The integration of both an electric motor and a combustion engine
makes the powertrain of PEVs more complex compared to conventional vehicles. This
complexity can lead to increased maintenance requirements and potential challenges in
terms of reliability and repair costs.
 Higher Initial Cost: PEVs generally have a higher initial purchase cost compared to
conventional vehicles due to the inclusion of electric drivetrain components and the dual
power sources. However, it is worth noting that costs are gradually decreasing as
technology advances and economies of scale improves
 Charging Infrastructure: Although PEVs offer the flexibility of utilizing gasoline or
electricity, the availability of charging infrastructure can still be a limitation. Public
charging stations may not be as widespread as gas stations, particularly in certain regions,
making access to charging points less convenient.
It is important to consider these advantages and disadvantages of Plug-in Electric Vehicles when
evaluating their suitability for individual needs and considering the transition to more sustainable
transportation options. As technology continues to advance and infrastructure expands, PEVs are
expected to become even more viable and widespread in the future.
A Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV) :
A Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV) is a type of vehicle that combines an internal combustion engine
(ICE) with an electric motor and a battery. HEVs utilize both gasoline (or diesel) and electricity to
power the vehicle, offering several advantages and disadvantages compared to conventional
vehicles.
Advantages of Hybrid Electric Vehicles:

 Increased Fuel Efficiency: HEVs achieve higher fuel efficiency compared to conventional
vehicles. The electric motor assists the combustion engine during acceleration and low-
speed driving, reducing the reliance on gasoline or diesel. This results in improved mileage
and reduced fuel consumption, leading to potential cost savings for the owner.
  Reduced Emissions: HEVs produce lower emissions compared to conventional vehicles.
The electric motor's assistance helps optimize the combustion engine's efficiency, resulting
in reduced greenhouse gas emissions and improved air quality.
 Regenerative Braking: HEVs utilize regenerative braking technology to capture energy
during braking and deceleration. The energy is converted into electrical energy and stored
in the battery for later use, improving overall energy efficiency and reducing wear on the
braking system.
 Extended Driving Range: HEVs have a longer driving range compared to pure electric
vehicles (EVs). The inclusion of the combustion engine ensures that the vehicle can
continue to operate when the battery charge is depleted, eliminating range anxiety and
offering the convenience of longer trips without the need for frequent recharging.
 Seamless Transition: HEVs offer a seamless transition between the electric motor and the
combustion engine. The vehicle's control system intelligently manages the power sources
based on driving conditions, optimizing efficiency and performance.
Disadvantages of Hybrid Electric Vehicles:

 Limited Electric-Only Range: Unlike plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs) or battery electric
vehicles (BEVs), HEVs have a limited electric-only range. The electric motor in HEVs
provides supplementary power but cannot solely power the vehicle for long distances,
requiring the combustion engine's support.
 Higher Initial Cost: HEVs generally have a higher upfront cost compared to conventional
vehicles. The additional components, such as the electric motor, battery, and control
systems, contribute to the higher purchase price. However, over time, the fuel savings may
offset the higher initial cost.
 Complex Powertrain: The integration of both an internal combustion engine and an electric
motor makes the powertrain of HEVs more complex than that of conventional vehicles.
This complexity can increase maintenance requirements and potential repair costs.
 Dependence on Fuel: Although HEVs offer improved fuel efficiency, they still rely on
gasoline or diesel as a primary fuel source. This dependency on fossil fuels means that
HEVs do not eliminate the environmental impact associated with fuel extraction,
refinement, and combustion.
 Limited Charging Infrastructure: Unlike plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) or
battery electric vehicles (BEVs), HEVs do not require external charging infrastructure.
However, the availability of charging infrastructure can still be a limitation for PHEVs,
which rely on both electricity and gasoline.
When considering the purchase of a hybrid electric vehicle, it's essential to evaluate individual
driving habits, the availability of charging infrastructure, and the environmental impact, taking
into account the advantages and disadvantages mentioned above. As technology continues to
advance, hybrid electric vehicles are expected to evolve, offering even greater efficiency and
reduced emissions in the future.
Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle (FCEV) :
A Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle (FCEV) is an electric vehicle that uses a fuel cell to generate
electricity on-board, producing power through a chemical reaction between hydrogen fuel and
oxygen from the air. FCEVs offer several advantages and disadvantages compared to other types
of electric vehicles.
Advantages of Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles:
 Zero Emissions: FCEVs produce zero tailpipe emissions since the only byproduct of the
hydrogen fuel cell reaction is water vapor. They offer a clean and environmentally friendly
transportation option, reducing greenhouse gas emissions and improving air quality.
 Longer Driving Range: FCEVs typically have a longer driving range compared to battery
electric vehicles (BEVs) and require shorter refueling times. This is because fuel cells
provide a continuous flow of electricity as long as hydrogen fuel is supplied, allowing for
extended driving distances without the need for frequent recharging.
 Quick Refueling: FCEVs can be refueled with hydrogen in a matter of minutes, similar to
refueling a conventional gasoline or diesel vehicle. This quick refueling time offers
convenience and a familiar refueling experience for drivers, making FCEVs more suitable
for long-distance travel and reducing concerns about range anxiety.
 Versatility: Fuel cell technology can be used in various vehicle types, including cars, buses,
trucks, and even boats. This versatility makes FCEVs a potential solution for different
transportation needs, including both personal and commercial applications.
 Energy Efficiency: Fuel cell systems have high energy efficiency, often exceeding that of
internal combustion engines. They convert chemical energy from hydrogen into electricity
with minimal energy loss, providing efficient power for the vehicle's electric motor.
Disadvantages of Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles:
 Limited Hydrogen Infrastructure: One of the main challenges for FCEVs is the limited
availability of hydrogen refueling infrastructure. Hydrogen fueling stations are not as
widespread as conventional gasoline stations or electric charging stations. This lack of
infrastructure makes it challenging for FCEV owners to find convenient refueling options,
particularly in certain regions.
 Hydrogen Production and Storage: Producing and storing hydrogen can be energy-
intensive and complex. The current methods of hydrogen production often rely on fossil
fuels, resulting in carbon emissions. Developing sustainable methods for hydrogen
production, such as electrolysis powered by renewable energy, is essential to maximize the
environmental benefits of FCEVs.
 Cost and Durability: FCEVs tend to have a higher initial cost compared to conventional
vehicles and other electric vehicles. The cost of fuel cell technology and the limited
production volume contribute to the higher price. Additionally, the durability and lifespan
of fuel cells need further improvement to ensure their long-term reliability and cost-
effectiveness.
 Safety Concerns: Hydrogen is highly flammable and requires specific safety measures for
storage and transportation. While rigorous safety standards are in place, concerns about the
 handling, storage, and potential leakage of hydrogen must be addressed to ensure the
widespread adoption of FCEVs.
 Limited Vehicle Models: Currently, the selection of FCEVs available on the market is more
limited compared to other electric vehicle options. As the technology develops further and
gains popularity, the variety of FCEV models is expected to expand.
Fuel cell electric vehicles hold promise as a clean and efficient alternative to conventional vehicles.
Overcoming challenges related to infrastructure, cost, and hydrogen production will be crucial for
their widespread adoption and to maximize their environmental benefits. Continued research,
investment, and technological advancements are necessary to address these limitations and make
FCEVs a viable transportation option.
Parts of EV:
Electric vehicles consist of several key components that work together to enable their
operation. Here are some of the main parts of an electric vehicle:

 Battery Pack: The battery pack is the heart of an electric vehicle. It stores electrical energy
to power the vehicle. Typically, lithium-ion batteries are used due to their high energy
density and efficiency. The battery pack is usually located under the vehicle's floor or in
the rear, ensuring optimal weight distribution.
 Electric Motor: The electric motor is responsible for converting electrical energy from the
battery into mechanical energy for propulsion. It drives the wheels of the vehicle, providing
torque and power. Electric motors are more efficient than internal combustion engines and
offer instant torque for quick acceleration.
 Power Electronics: Power electronics control the flow of electrical energy between the
battery, motor, and other components. They consist of various devices such as inverters,
converters, and controllers. Power electronics manage the voltage, current, and frequency
of electricity, ensuring efficient power delivery and control.
 Onboard Charger: The onboard charger converts AC (alternating current) power from an
external charging station or outlet into DC (direct current) power to recharge the vehicle's
battery. It controls the charging process, monitors battery conditions, and ensures safe and
efficient charging.
 DC-DC Converter: The DC-DC converter converts high-voltage DC power from the
battery into lower-voltage DC power to operate the vehicle's auxiliary systems and charge
the 12V battery. It regulates and steps down the voltage to power components such as
lights, infotainment systems, and other electronics.
 Thermal Management System: Electric vehicles require a thermal management system to
regulate and maintain optimal operating temperatures. It cools the battery pack, electric
motor, and power electronics to prevent overheating and ensure efficient performance. It
may use liquid or air cooling methods.
  Regenerative Braking System: Electric vehicles utilize regenerative braking to capture and
convert kinetic energy during braking and deceleration into electrical energy. This energy
is fed back into the battery, improving overall efficiency and extending the vehicle's range.
 Charging Port: Electric vehicles are equipped with a charging port that allows them to
connect to external charging stations or power sources. The charging port provides a
physical connection and communication interface to facilitate the transfer of electricity
between the vehicle and the charging infrastructure.
 Vehicle Control Unit (VCU): The VCU acts as the central control system of the electric
vehicle. It manages and coordinates the operation of various components, including the
battery, motor, power electronics, and other systems. The VCU monitors performance,
regulates power flow, and ensures the overall safety and efficiency of the vehicle.
These are some of the key components found in electric vehicles. Each part plays a crucial role in
enabling the vehicle's electric propulsion, energy storage, charging, and overall performance.
Advances in technology and ongoing research are continuously improving these components to
enhance the efficiency, range, and reliability of electric vehicles.
Types of Charging methods:
There are several types of charging methods used for Electric Vehicles (EVs). Let's explore three
common methods along with their advantages and disadvantages:
Level 1 Charging:
 Charging Power: Typically up to 2.3 kW (120V, 15A).
 Charging Time: Slower charging speed, ranging from several hours to overnight.
Advantages:
 Can be done using a standard household outlet.
 Minimal installation costs since no additional charging equipment is required.
 Suitable for overnight charging or when time is not a constraint.
Disadvantages:
 Slow charging speed, limiting the daily driving range.
 Not suitable for long trips or when quick charging is needed.
 May require dedicated circuits and electrical safety upgrades.
Level 2 Charging:Charging Power:

 Typically ranges from 3.6 kW to 22 kW (240V, 15-100A).

 Charging Time: Faster charging speed compared to Level 1, typically a few hours.
Advantages:

 Suitable for home charging and public charging stations.

 Offers a significant increase in charging speed compared to Level 1.
  Can be installed at residences, workplaces, and public locations.
Disadvantages:
 Requires a dedicated charging station installation, increasing upfront costs.
 Limited availability of Level 2 charging stations in certain areas.
 May require professional installation and electrical upgrades.
DC Fast Charging (Level 3 Charging):
 Charging Power: Typically ranges from 50 kW to 350 kW.
 Charging Time: Rapid charging, can provide a significant charge in 30 minutes or less.
Advantages:
 Extremely fast charging speeds, suitable for long trips and quick refueling.
 Widely available in public charging networks, especially along highways.
 Enables long-distance travel by reducing charging time.
Disadvantages:

 Higher installation and equipment costs compared to Level 1 and Level 2 charging.
 Requires specialized charging equipment and infrastructure.
 May cause increased battery degradation due to higher charging power.
It's important to note that charging times and power levels may vary depending on the specific
vehicle model and charging equipment. Additionally, the availability of charging stations and
infrastructure can differ based on location. The choice of charging method depends on individual
needs, driving habits, and the desired balance between charging speed, convenience, and cost.
AC Charging method:
AC charging, also known as Alternating Current charging, is one of the common charging methods
used for Electric Vehicles (EVs). Let's explore its advantages and disadvantages:
Advantages of AC Charging:

 Compatibility: AC charging is compatible with standard electrical outlets found in homes

and commercial buildings. It utilizes the existing AC infrastructure, making it widely
accessible and convenient for EV owners.
 Flexibility: AC charging supports various power levels, typically ranging from 3.6 kW to
22 kW. This flexibility allows users to choose the charging power that suits their needs,
balancing charging speed and cost.
 Cost-Effective: AC charging equipment is generally less expensive compared to DC fast
charging infrastructure. The lower cost of AC charging stations and equipment makes it an
affordable option for residential and workplace charging installations.
 Ease of Installation: AC charging stations can be relatively easy to install, especially when
a suitable electrical circuit is already present. Professional installation may still be required,
 but it typically involves simpler and less complex procedures compared to DC fast charging
installations.
 Charging Time for Daily Use: AC charging is suitable for overnight charging or when time
is not a constraint. It can provide a significant charge overnight, allowing EV owners to
start each day with a full or nearly full battery.
Disadvantages of AC Charging:

 Slower Charging Speed: Compared to DC fast charging, AC charging is generally slower.

The charging power levels for AC charging are lower, resulting in longer charging times
compared to high-power DC charging options.
 Limited for Long-Distance Travel: AC charging may not be practical for long-distance
travel due to the slower charging speed. For extended trips, DC fast charging is more
suitable as it provides rapid charging and reduces charging time significantly.
 Charging Infrastructure Availability: While AC charging stations can be found in various
locations, the availability may be limited in some areas, especially in public spaces and
along highways. This may cause inconvenience for EV owners who rely solely on AC
charging when away from home or work.
 Dependence on Existing Electrical Infrastructure: AC charging relies on the existing
electrical grid and infrastructure. In some cases, the electrical system may not be capable
of providing high-power AC charging, requiring electrical upgrades to support faster
charging speeds.
 Not Ideal for Battery Longevity: Continuous use of AC charging at high power levels may
increase battery degradation over time. It is recommended to balance charging speed and
battery health by utilizing slower AC charging when not in a hurry.
Understanding the advantages and disadvantages of AC charging helps EV owners make informed
decisions about their charging needs. While it may not offer the fastest charging speeds for long
trips, AC charging is a practical and cost-effective solution for daily charging at home, workplace,
or locations with AC charging infrastructure.
DC Charging Method:
DC charging, also known as Direct Current charging, is a fast charging method used for
Electric Vehicles (EVs). Let's explore its advantages and disadvantages:
Advantages of DC Charging:
 Rapid Charging Speed: DC charging provides significantly faster charging speeds
compared to AC charging. It can deliver high-power charging levels ranging from 50 kW
to 350 kW, allowing EVs to gain a substantial charge in a short amount of time. This makes
DC charging ideal for long-distance travel and quick refueling stops.
 Long-Distance Travel: The fast charging speed of DC charging makes it practical for long-
distance travel. With DC fast charging stations located along highways and major routes,
EV owners can recharge their vehicles quickly and continue their journey, minimizing
charging time during road trips.
  Infrastructure Availability: DC fast charging infrastructure is expanding rapidly, with
charging stations being installed at public locations, service stations, and commercial
establishments. The increasing availability of DC charging networks makes it convenient
for EV owners to find charging stations, reducing range anxiety and promoting widespread
adoption.
 High Charging Power: DC charging stations can provide high-power charging directly to
the vehicle's battery, bypassing the need for on-board chargers. This allows for efficient
charging and reduces heat generation, leading to more energy being transferred to the
battery.
Disadvantages of DC Charging:
 Higher Costs: DC charging infrastructure and equipment tend to be more expensive
compared to AC charging. The high-power charging stations and specialized equipment
required for DC charging result in higher installation and operational costs.
 Electrical Grid Limitations: DC charging stations require a robust electrical infrastructure
to handle the high power demands. In areas with weak or limited electrical grid capacity,
the installation of DC charging stations may require significant upgrades or modifications
to the grid infrastructure.
 Battery Stress: Rapid charging at high power levels can generate more heat, potentially
causing increased battery stress and degradation over time. While modern EVs are
designed to handle fast charging, frequent and prolonged use of high-power DC charging
may impact the long-term health of the battery.
 Compatibility Constraints: Different EV models have varying DC charging capabilities and
connector types. This can result in compatibility issues, limiting the options for EV owners
when accessing DC charging stations.
 Limited for Home Installation: Due to the high power requirements and specialized
equipment, DC charging is not typically feasible for home installations. It is primarily
installed in public charging networks and commercial settings, making it less accessible
for residential EV charging.
Understanding the advantages and disadvantages of DC charging helps EV owners assess their
charging needs and determine the most suitable charging methods. While DC charging offers rapid
charging and long-distance travel convenience, it is important to consider factors such as cost,
battery health, and infrastructure availability when utilizing this charging method.
Wireless charging method:
Wireless charging is an emerging technology that allows Electric Vehicles (EVs) to charge
their batteries without the need for physical cables. Let's explore its advantages and disadvantages:
Advantages of Wireless Charging:
 Convenience and Ease of Use: Wireless charging eliminates the need for manually
plugging and unplugging cables, providing a seamless and convenient charging experience.
 EV owners can simply park their vehicles over a charging pad or designated area for
automatic charging initiation.
 Reduction in Physical Wear and Tear: Wireless charging eliminates the wear and tear
associated with physical connectors, as there is no need for repeated insertion and removal
of charging cables. This can lead to increased durability and longevity of both the charging
equipment and the vehicle's charging port.
 Improved Safety: Wireless charging reduces the risk of electrical hazards such as electric
shock or short circuits that may occur when handling charging cables. It provides a safer
charging option, especially in wet or adverse weather conditions.
 Increased Charging Efficiency: Wireless charging systems have been designed to improve
charging efficiency by minimizing energy loss during the charging process. With
advancements in resonant inductive coupling technology, wireless charging can achieve
efficiency levels comparable to traditional wired charging.
Disadvantages of Wireless Charging:
 Lower Charging Efficiency: While wireless charging has improved over time, it still tends
to have lower efficiency compared to wired charging. Energy losses occur during wireless
power transfer, resulting in slower charging speeds and slightly reduced overall charging
efficiency.
 Limited Range and Alignment Requirements: Wireless charging requires precise
alignment between the charging pad and the vehicle's receiver. Misalignment can lead to
reduced charging efficiency or no charging at all. This limitation requires drivers to
accurately position their vehicles over the charging pad, which may be challenging in some
cases.
 Cost and Infrastructure: Wireless charging infrastructure, including the installation of
charging pads and associated equipment, can be more expensive compared to traditional
wired charging solutions. The cost of retrofitting existing infrastructure with wireless
charging capabilities may also be a consideration.
 Compatibility Challenges: Wireless charging standards and technologies are not yet
standardized across all EV manufacturers. This may result in compatibility challenges, as
different vehicles may require different types of wireless charging systems or pads.
 Lower Power Levels: Wireless charging systems currently have lower power levels
compared to high-power DC fast charging options. This can result in longer charging times
for EVs with larger battery capacities or higher energy requirements
It's important to note that wireless charging technology is still evolving, and ongoing research and
development efforts are focused on addressing its limitations. As the technology advances,
wireless charging has the potential to become a more widely adopted and convenient charging
solution for EVs.
Solar EV:
Solar electric vehicle (SEV) is an electric vehicle powered importantly or completely by direct
solar energy. Through solar arrays installed on top of the vehicle, often photovoltaic (PV) cells,
solar energy is converted directly into electric energy. Since converted solar energy is the only
source, it powers all or part of SEV's propulsion, electronics, communication, navigation, security
and other auxiliary features [2]. Sensors provide assistance to the driver similar to conventional
vehicles. Here, gathered information allows monitoring the car's energy consumption, solar energy
capture and other parameters. SEVs can be equipped with a battery pack assistance to ensure
continuous driving during shaded days or night use giving an extended range of autonomy to the
users.

research on solar-powered cars. The German Power Core Suncruiser, Japanese Kaitu II and the
Australian eVe are most remarkable solar race cars.
Power management:

Control strategies for hybrid-electric vehicles generally target several simultaneous

objectives. The primary one is the minimization of the vehicle fuel consumption, while also
attempting to minimize emissions and to maintain or enhance drivability. To date, the power
management (PM) system in EVs is basically formed by two layers; High level software-based
supervision and low level hardware-based control which can be divided into two control layers
low level component and low level control. Both hardware and software control layers works
together to optimize PM system in EVs.

Major challenge of energy management system (EMS) in an electric vehicle is to assure

optimal use and regeneration of the total energy in the vehicle. Regardless of number of sources,
the powertrain configuration, at any time and for any vehicle speed, the control strategy has to
determine the power distribution between different energies. When two storage systems or two
fuel converters are available additional power distribution between the RESSs and between the
fuel converters has to be determined. These decisions are constrained by two factors. First of all,
the motive power requested by the driver must always be satisfied up to a maximum power demand
already known. Then, charge status must be maintained within, allowing the vehicle to be charge
continuously.

ELECTRIC VEHICLE CHARGING STATION:

Electric vehicle charging stations are not sufficient. There are two types of charging stations exists
i.e. public and private charging stations. Government has established few charging stations in
different cities of Bangladesh but maximum charging stations are private. These private charging
stations have taken a higher charging rate. Fig. 1 shows a block diagram of an EVCS which
comprises transformer, rectifier and converter. Basically, rectifier and converter make a charger
which used for EV charging. The specifications of EVs available in Bangladesh are given in Table
1 below.
As the EV loads are increasing day by day in a rapid manner, thus the impacts of EVs should be
analyzed. The impact of mass EV penetration on power system is expressed in Fig. 2 below.
Although EV penetration has cheapest transportation system, lower GHG emission facility, smart
grid facilities. But negative impacts on power system network are very much significant.

MATHEMATICAL MODELING
As a non-linear load, EV charger produces harmonics, low voltage profile and power loss in
distribution transformer. For EV charging level 2 type AC charging scheme is used where
maximum current rating is 16 A and maximum power rating is 3.3 kW. Most of the electric
vehicles have power ranges from 0.5 kW to 1 kW and all of them use single phase 240 V, 50 Hz
supply system. In this section, we have developed mathematical modeling for harmonics, voltage
profile and transformer overloading due to EV charging.

A. Power Demand

Electric Vehicle battery takes charge from the power distribution system. The increased power
demand affects the stability of the system due to non-linearity. The power demand by an EV can
be expressed as in Equation (1).

Where CBatt is the battery capacity, TD is the duration of charging. Battery SOC is a factor
whether the EV takes high or small power. The gross power demand of the EVs is the summation
of individual power demand of all EVs which likely signifies as in Equation (2).

B. Harmonics

The rise in high frequency components of voltage and current with compared to fundamental
frequency is defined as harmonics. Harmonics distorts the voltage & current waveforms and
thereby affecting power quality. It can be measured by total harmonic distortion (THD) of current
& voltage
Equation (3) & (4) express the Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) for current and voltage
respectively [6]. For slow charging THDi, THDv will be less than the fast charging. Thus, the EV
with low SOC will have a great chance to produce harmonics.

C. Voltage profile

The low voltage profile becomes a threatening issue induced by EV charging. Voltage stability
refers to the ability that the power network being stable after the sudden increase or decrease in
the loads. EV loads take large amount of power at a very short duration. Thus, voltage profile will
be degraded and grid will be unstable.

D. Transformer performance

Mass deployment of EVs creates an additional stress on distribution transformers and their life
cycles. Another problem is that, the EV charging rate should be limited per day and charging
stations should keep far away from transformer for reducing power loss. Harmonic current is
responsible for occurring load losses in transformer whereas harmonic voltage incurs no load loss.
Due to these harmonic losses, heating is increased relative to the pure sinusoidal wave. This
harmonic withstand capability can be measured by a factor called k- factor.

In is the current related to nth harmonic and IR is the rated load current. The presence of harmonics
causes overheating in the transformer. Thus, the transformer should be selected according to the
withstand capability at higher harmonic current for non-linear loading [7].
 CHAPTER-3

SOLAR PV SYSTEM

The photovoltaic effect was _rst reported by Edmund Bequerel in 1839 when he observed
that the action of light on a silver coated platinum electrode immersed in electrolyte produced an
electric current. Forty years later the _rst solid state photovoltaic devices were constructed by
workers investigating the recently discovered photoconductivity of selenium. In 1876 William
Adams and Richard Day found that a photocurrent could be produced in a sample of selenium
when contacted by two heated platinum contacts. The photovoltaic action of the selenium di_ered
from its photoconductive action in that a current was produced spontaneously by the action of
light. No external power supply was needed. In this early photovoltaic device, a rectifying junction
had been formed between the semiconductor and the metal contact. In 1894, Charles Fritts
prepared what was probably the _rst large area solar cell by pressing a layer of selenium between
gold and another metal. In the following years photovoltaic e_ects were observed in copper{copper
oxide thin _lm structures, in lead sulphide and thallium sulphide. These early cells were thin
_lm Schottky barrier devices, where a semitransparent layer of metal deposited on top of the
semiconductor provided both the asymmetric electronic junction, which is necessary for
photovoltaic action, and access to the junction for the incident light. The photovoltaic e_ect of
structures like this was related to the existence of a barrier to current ow at one of the
semiconductor{metal interfaces (i.e., rectifying action) by Goldman and Brodsky in 1914. Later,
during the 1930s, the theory of metal{semiconductor barrier layers was developed by Walter
Schottky, Neville Mott and others.

However, it was not the photovoltaic properties of materials like selenium which excited
researchers, but the photoconductivity. The fact that the current produced was proportional to the
intensity of the incident light, and related to the wavelength in a de_nite way meant that
photoconductive materials were ideal for photographic light meters. The photovoltaic e_ect

in barrier structures was an added bene_t, meaning that the light meter could operate without a
power supply. It was not until the 1950s, with the development of good quality silicon wafers for
applications in the new solid state electronics, that potentially useful quantities of power were
produced by photovoltaic devices in crystalline silicon.

In the 1950s, the development of silicon electronics followed the discovery of a way to
manufacture p{n junctions in silicon. Naturally n type silicon wafers developed a p type skin when
exposed to the gas boron trichloride. Part of the skin could be etched away to give access to the n
type layer beneath. These p{n junction structures produced much better rectifying action than
Schottky barriers, and better photovoltaic behaviour. The _rst silicon solar cell was reported by
Chapin, Fuller and Pearson in 1954 and converted sunlight with an e_ciency of 6%, six times
higher than the best previous attempt. That _gure was to rise signi_cantly over the following years
and decades but, at an estimated production cost of some $200 per Watt, these cells were not
seriously considered for power generation for several decades. Nevertheless, the early silicon solar
cell did introduce the possibility of power generation in remote locations where fuel could not
easily be delivered. The obvious application was to satellites where the requirement of reliability
and low weight made the cost of the cells unimportant and during the 1950s and 60s, silicon solar
cells were widely developed for applications in space.

Also in 1954, a cadmium sulphide p{n junction was produced with an e_ciency of 6%, and
in the following years studies of p{n junction photovoltaic devices in gallium arsenide, indium
phosphide and cadmium telluride were stimulated by theoretical work indicating that these
materials would o_er a higher e_ciency. However, silicon remained and remains the foremost
photovoltaic material, bene_ting from the advances of silicon technology for the microelectronics
industry. Short histories of the solar cell are given elsewhere [Shive, 1959; Wolf, 1972; Green,
1990].

In the 1970s the crisis in energy supply experienced by the oil-dependent western world
led to a sudden growth of interest in alternative sources of energy, and funding for research and
development in those areas. Photovoltaics was a subject of intense interest during this period, and
a range of strategies for producing photovoltaic devices and materials more cheaply and for
improving device e_ciency were explored. Routes to lower cost included photoelectrochemical
junctions, and alternative materials such as polycrystalline silicon, amorphous silicon, other `thin
_lm' materials and organic conductors. Strategies for higher e_ciency included tandem and other
multiple band gap designs. Although none of these led to widespread commercial development,
our understanding of the science of photovoltaics is mainly rooted in this period.

During the 1990s, interest in photovoltaics expanded, along with growing awareness of the
need to secure sources of electricity alternative to fossil fuels. The trend coincides with the
widespread deregulation of the electricity markets and growing recognition of the viability of
decentralized power. During this period, the economics of photovoltaics improved primarily
through economies of scale. In the late 1990s the photovoltaic production expanded at a rate of
15{25% per annum, driving a reduction in cost. Photovoltaics _rst became competitive in contexts
where conventional electricity supply is most expensive, for instance, for remote low power
applications such as navigation, telecommunications, and rural electri_cation and for enhancement
of supply in grid-connected loads at peak use [Anderson,2001]. As prices fall, new markets are
opened up. An important example is building integrated photovoltaic applications, where the cost
of the photovoltaic system is o_set by the savings in building materials.

There are several types of solar cells. However, more than 90 % of the solar cells currently
made worldwide consist of wafer-based silicon cells. They are either cut from a single crystal rod
or from a block composed of many crystals and are correspondingly called mono-crystalline or
multi-crystalline silicon solar cells. Wafer-based silicon solar cells are approximately 200 μm
thick. Another important family of solar cells is based on thin-films, which are approximately 1-2
μm thick and therefore require significantly less active, semiconducting material. Thin-film solar
cells can be manufactured at lower cost in large production quantities; hence their market share
will likely increase in the future. However, they indicate lower efficiencies than wafer-based
silicon solar cells, which mean that more exposure surface and material for the installation is
required for a similar performance.

A number of solar cells electrically connected to each other and mounted in a single
support structure or frame is called a ‘photovoltaic module’. Modules are designed to supply
electricity at a certain voltage, such as a common 12 volt system. The current produced is directly
dependent on the intensity of light reaching the module. Several modules can be wired together to
form an array. Photovoltaic modules and arrays produce direct-current electricity. They can be
connected in both series and parallel electrical arrangements to produce any required voltage and
current combination.
ELECTRICAL CONNECTION OF THE CELLS

The electrical output of a single cell is dependent on the design of the device and the

Semi-conductor material(s) chosen, but is usually insufficient for most applications. In order to
provide the appropriate quantity of electrical power, a number of cells must be electrically
connected. There are two basic connection methods: series connection, in which the top contact of
each cell is connected to the back contact of the next cell in the sequence, and parallel connection,
in which all the top contacts are connected together, as are all the bottom contacts. In both cases,
this results in just two electrical connection points for the group of cells.

 Series connection:
Figure shows the series connection of three individual cells as an example and the resultant
group of connected cells is commonly referred to as a series string. The current output of the string
is equivalent to the current of a single cell, but the voltage output is increased, being an addition
of the voltages from all the cells in the string (i.e. in this case, the voltage output is equal to 3Vcell).
 Fig. Series connection of cells, with resulting current–voltage characteristic.

It is important to have well matched cells in the series string, particularly with respect to
current. If one cell produces a significantly lower current than the other cells (under the same
illumination conditions), then the string will operate at that lower current level and the remaining
cells will not be operating at their maximum power points.

 Parallel connection
Figure shows the parallel connection of three individual cells as an example. In this case, the
current from the cell group is equivalent to the addition of the current from each cell (in this case,
3 Icell), but the voltage remains equivalent to that of a single cell.

As before, it is important to have the cells well matched in order to gain maximum output,
but this time the voltage is the important parameter since all cells must be at the same operating
voltage. If the voltage at the maximum power point is substantially different for one of the cells,
then this will force all the cells to operate off their maximum power point, with the poorer cell
being pushed towards its open-circuit voltage value and the better cells to voltages below the
maximum power point voltage. In all cases, the power level will be reduced below the optimum.
Fig. Parallel connection of cells, with resulting current–voltage characteristic.

THE PHOTOVOLTAIC ARRAY

A PV array consists of a number of PV modules, mounted in the same plane and electrically
connected to give the required electrical output for the application. The PV array can be of any
size from a few hundred watts to hundreds of kilowatts, although the larger systems are often
divided into several electrically independent sub arrays each feeding into their own power
conditioning system.

MPPT:

3.1 PRINCIPLE OF MPPT

Maximum power point tracker (or MPPT) is a high efficiency DC to DC converter that
presents an optimal electrical load to a solar panel or array and produces a voltage suitable for the
load.
 PV cells have a single operating point where the values of the current (I) and Voltage (V)
of the cell result in a maximum power output. These values correspond to a particular load
resistance, which is equal to V/I as specified by Ohm's Law. A PV cell has an exponential
relationship between current and voltage, and the maximum power point (MPP) occurs at the knee
of the curve, where the resistance is equal to the negative of the differential resistance (V/I = -
dV/dI). Maximum power point trackers utilize some type of control circuit or logic to search for
this point and thus to allow the converter circuit to extract the maximum power available from a
cell.

Traditional solar inverters perform MPPT for an entire array as a whole. In such systems
the same current, dictated by the inverter, flows though all panels in the string. But because
different panels have different IV curves, i.e. different MPPs (due to manufacturing tolerance,
partial shading, etc.) this architecture means some panels will be performing below their MPP,
resulting in the loss of energy.

Some companies (see power optimizer) are now placing peak power point converters into
individual panels, allowing each to operate at peak efficiency despite uneven shading, soiling or
electrical mismatch.

At night, an off-grid PV power system uses batteries to supply its loads. Although the
battery pack voltage when fully charged may be close to the PV array's peak power point, this is
unlikely to be true at sunrise when the battery is partially discharged. Charging may begin at a
voltage considerably below the array peak power point, and a MPPT can resolve this mismatch.

When the batteries in an off-grid system are full and PV production exceeds local loads, a
MPPT can no longer operate the array at its peak power point as the excess power has nowhere to
go. The MPPT must then shift the array operating point away from the peak power point until
production exactly matches demand. (An alternative approach commonly used in spacecraft is to
divert surplus PV power into a resistive load, allowing the array to operate continuously at its peak
power point.)

In a grid-tied photovoltaic system, the grid is essentially a battery with near infinite
capacity. The grid can always absorb surplus PV power, and it can cover shortfalls in PV
production (e.g., at night). Batteries are thus needed only for protection from grid outages. The
MPPT in a grid tied PV system will always operate the array at its peak power point unless the
grid fails when the batteries are full and there are insufficient local loads. It would then have to
back the array away from its peak power point as in the off-grid case (which it has temporarily
become).

3.2 ALGORITHM OF PERTURB OBSERVE METHOD

Fig 3.1: Flow chart of the MPPT algorithm with P&O method.

By comparing the recent values of power and voltage with previous ones, the P&O method
shown in the flow chart can determine the value of reference current to adjust the output power
toward the maximum point [4].

MPPTs can be designed to drive an electric motor without a storage battery. They provide
significant advantages, especially when starting a motor under load. This can require a starting
current that is well above the short-circuit rating of the PV panel. A MPPT can step the panel's
relatively high voltage and low current down to the low voltage and high current needed to start
the motor.

Once the motor is running and its current requirements have dropped, the MPPT will
automatically increase the voltage to normal. In this application, the MPPT can be seen as an
electrical analogue to the transmission in a car; the low gears provide extra torque to the wheels
until the car is up to speed.

3.3 Hill Climb Search Strategy

Due to the similarities of the shape of the wind and PV array power curves, a similar
maximum power point tracking scheme known as the hill climb search (HCS) strategy is often
applied to these energy sources to extract maximum power. The HCS strategy perturbs the
operating point of the system and observes the output. If the direction of the perturbation (e.g an
increase or decrease in the output voltage of a PV array) results in a positive change in the output
power, then the control algorithm will continue in the direction of the previous perturbation.

Conversely, if a negative change in the output power is observed, then the control algorithm
will reverse the direction of the pervious perturbation step. In the case that the change in power is
close to zero (within a specified range) then the algorithm will invoke no changes to the system
operating point since it corresponds to the maximum power point (the peak of the power curves.

3.4 MPPT Scheme of  method:

Fast MPPT scheme, called the “β” method, was suitably modified and used for the given
application [5]. The scheme is based on the observation that the value of an intermediate variable
“β”, defined only at MPP condition, varies with in a narrow band (βmax − βmin) as the MPP varies
from PMPP(max) to PMPP(min) over the full insolation and temperature range (λmax, Tmax to λmin,
Tmin), as shown in algorithm. β is a subset of β’, which is applicable to any point on the P–V curve,
including MPP.
 Fig 3.2:MPPT algorithm for β-method

β is obtained by using the MPP condition, ∂P/dV = 0 and is given by,

I
=ln( Io c) lnVpv −c Vpv
pv

where Io is the reverse saturation current of the diode. Therefore, by tracking β using large iterative
steps, the operating point can be quickly brought into a narrow band of MPP. Also, controlling “β”
indirectly controls the operating voltage (OV) of the PV array, which helps in balancing the power
across capacitor CPV.
 It is important to note that problems may arise during the low insolation phase when the
generated PV power is very small and the value of “M”, as computed by the MPP algorithm, is
small. Under such conditions, as FC continues to feed the deficit power, this will result in a voltage
increase across CPV due to imbalance between the input and output power. This may lead to shifting
of OV of the PV array toward the OCC. The array will remain at OCC even when high or normal
insolation is restored and the system will continue to draw the required power from FC. To avoid
such a situation, the algorithm has been suitably modified to ensure that the PV array voltage is
always less than or equal to a critical voltage (Vcrit ), which is less than the PV array’s VOC.
Whenever the array voltage goes beyond Vcrit (which occurs only when the power drawn from the
FC is not fed into the grid due to the low value of M) and array power is less than the minimum
power Pmin, the modulation index is set to a fixed value (Mcon) by the algorithm. This ensures that
VPV ≤ Vcrit .

3.5 INCREMENTAL CONDUCTANCE METHOD:

This method consists in using the slope of the derivative of the current with respect to the
voltage in order to reach the maximum power point [2].

What advantage does MPPT give in the real world that depends on the array, their climate,
and their seasonal load pattern. It gives us an effective current boost only when the Vpp is more
than about 1V higher than the battery voltage. In hot weather, this may not be the case unless the
batteries are low in charge. In cold weather however, the Vpp can rise to 18V. If ther energy use
is greatest in the winter (typical in most homes) and the have cold winter weather, then the can
gain a substantial boost in energy when the need it the most.

Here is an example of MPPT action on a cold winter day:

Outside temperature: 20°F (-7°C) Wind is blowing a bit, so the PV cell temperature rises
to only around 32°F (0°C). Vpp = 18V Batteries are a bit low, and loads are on, so battery voltage
= 12.0

Ratio of Vpp to battery voltage is 18:12 = 1.5:1

 Fig 3.3: Incremental Conductance Method Algorithm

Under these conditions, a theoretically perfect MPPT (with no voltage drop in the array
circuit) would deliver a 50% increase in charge current. In reality, there are losses in the conversion
just as there is friction in a car's transmission. Reports from the field indicate that increases of 20
to 30% are typically observed.

Both the wind turbine and the photovoltaic array must be adjusted to operate at their point
of maximum power. Many different maximum power point tracking (MPPT) algorithms like
perturbation observation method, incremental conductance method have been developed and
widely used for such systems. The perturbation observation method is adopted in this paper for
both the wind turbine and the photovoltaic array for it simplicity and accuracy. The algorithm starts
by choosing an initial reference rotor speed for the wind turbine and an initial reference voltage
for the photovoltaic array. The corresponding output powers of the two systems are measured. If
this power does not correspond to their maximum powers, then their initial reference values are
incremented or decremented by one step. If this adjustment leads to an increase in their output
powers then the next adjustment is made in the same direction and vice-versa. The above steps are
repeated till the maximum power points of the wind turbine and photovoltaic array are reached.

Maximum Power Point of the System

Both the wind turbine and the photovoltaic array must be adjusted to operate at their point
of maximum power. Many different maximum power point tracking (MPPT) algorithms like
perturbation observation method, incremental conductance method have been developed and
widely used for such systems [5]. The perturbation observation method is adopted in this paper for
both the wind turbine and the photovoltaic array for it simplicity and accuracy. The algorithm starts
by choosing an initial reference rotor speed for the wind turbine and an initial reference voltage
for the photovoltaic array. The corresponding output powers of the two systems are measured. If
this power does not correspond to their maximum powers, then their initial reference values are
incremented or decremented by one step. If this adjustment leads to an increase in their output
powers then the next adjustment is made in the same direction and vice-versa. The above steps are
repeated till the maximum power points of the wind turbine and photovoltaic array are reached.

Design of Boost Converter

The basic structure and control topology of the dc-dc boost converter are shown above [6].
The converter divides the input dc-link voltage into two levels: variable dc-link voltage at the
output terminals of the energy source and fixed dc-link voltage at the input terminals of the voltage
source inverter. In this section, the operation of the boost chopper is theoretically analyzed. The
energy sources are replaced by a variable dc voltage source in order to facilitate the analysis. The
inverter circuit is simulated as a resistive load connected to a fixed dc-link, since it can be
controlled to behave as a current source at the high power factor. The inductance and capacitance
of the system are assumed to be sufficiently large, such that the switching device current and the
dc output voltage are filtered by the inductor and capacitor respectively. The energy is stored in L,
when Sdc is “1”, and the energy is transferred to C, when Sdc equals “0”
 Fig 3.5:Step-up dc-dc Boost Converter Circuit

Fig 3.6:Point Tracking of Photovoltaic Sources

This DC power converter is used to step up the voltage.

The schematic diagram displays a (DC-DC) step-up converter having Vg(input voltage),
inductor(L), diode(D), capacitor(C), load (R) and a switch(S). Operating condition; while Switch
is open, the diode is in off state, and current increases linearly in the inductor.
Otherwise, the current decreases linearly, and the polarity of the inductor is changed because of
which current is supplied to the RC circuit through the diode [16,17].

Equation is, (10)

(D = duty cycle)
Some other related equations used are: Inductor ripple current:

(11)
Capacitor ripple voltage:
Current ripple factor (CRF):

Voltage ripple factor(VRF):

The critical value of inductor:

Filter capacitor’s minimum value is:

For the continuous operation of the circuit, C>Cmin and L>Lb conditions should be satisfied.
The values of the term CRF(Current ripple factor) and VRF(voltage ripple factor) should not
exceed 30% and 5% respectively [15].
Specification of boost converter used in this module are:
 Boost Inductor - 120 uH
 Input filter capacitor - 4000 uF
 MOSFET
 Resistive load - 3.8 ohm
 Output filter capacitor - 70uF
 Switching frequency - 25 kHz
 CHAPTER-4
DUAL ACTIVE BRIDGE CONVERTER

The dual active bridge (DAB) converter is a power electronics topology commonly
used in high-power applications, such as electric vehicle charging systems, renewable energy
systems, and grid-connected energy storage systems. It provides bidirectional power flow with
high efficiency and offers a wide voltage conversion range. In this converter, two full-bridge
converters are connected back-to-back, allowing for independent control of the voltage and
current on both sides. Here is a brief overview of the DAB converter and its operation:
Basic Configuration:
The DAB converter consists of two full-bridge converters, referred to as the primary
and secondary bridges. Each bridge comprises four power switches (typically implemented using
IGBTs or MOSFETs) and four diodes. The primary bridge is connected to the AC source or the
energy source, while the secondary bridge is connected to the load or the energy storage system.

Operating Principles:
The DAB converter operates based on the principle of phase-shift modulation. By
controlling the phase shift angle between the primary and secondary bridges, the converter can
regulate the voltage and current levels and achieve bidirectional power flow. The control system
monitors the input and output voltages and currents, adjusts the phase-shift angle, and controls
the switching of the power devices to maintain the desired power transfer.

Modes of Operation:
The DAB converter supports four operating modes, which are as follows:

 Rectification Mode: In this mode, power flows from the AC source to the load or energy
storage system. The switches in the primary bridge are controlled to rectify the AC input
voltage into a DC voltage, while the secondary bridge operates as an inverter to regulate
the output voltage and deliver power to the load.

 Inversion Mode: In this mode, power flows from the energy storage system or load to the
AC grid. The primary bridge operates as an inverter, converting the DC input voltage into
an AC voltage, while the secondary bridge acts as a rectifier to regulate the output
voltage and deliver power to the grid.
 Capacitive Energy Transfer Mode: This mode allows bidirectional power flow between
the primary and secondary sides. It is used for energy transfer between two DC sources,
such as two energy storage systems. The DAB converter controls the power flow
direction and maintains the desired voltage levels.

 Inductive Energy Transfer Mode: Similar to capacitive energy transfer mode, this mode
enables bidirectional power flow between the primary and secondary sides. It is used for
energy transfer between two DC sources, such as energy storage systems, with the
additional feature of galvanic isolation between the primary and secondary sides using a
high-frequency transformer.

Advantages:
The dual active bridge converter offers several advantages, including:

 Bidirectional power flow: It allows power to flow in both directions, enabling energy
transfer between different sources or systems.
  High efficiency: The DAB converter can achieve high efficiency due to its soft-switching
operation and optimal control techniques.

 Wide voltage conversion range: It supports a wide range of input and output voltage levels,
making it suitable for various applications.
 Independent control: The primary and secondary bridges can be controlled independently,
providing flexibility in voltage and current regulation.

 Reduced size and weight: The DAB converter's high-frequency operation allows for the
use of smaller magnetics, resulting in a compact and lightweight design.

These are the basic aspects of a dual active bridge converter. For more detailed information,
including control strategies, modulation techniques, and specific applications, you can refer to
research papers, academic publications, and technical articles focused on power electronics and
converter technologies.
 CHAPTER-5

CONTROL TECHNIQUE

FUZZY INTERFACE SYSTEM:

Fuzzy Inference System is the key unit of a fuzzy logic system having decision making as its
primary work. It uses the “IF…THEN” rules along with connectors “OR” or “AND” for drawing
essential decision rules.

Characteristics of Fuzzy Inference System Following are some characteristics of FIS –

• The output from FIS is always a fuzzy set irrespective of its input which can be fuzzy or crisp.

• It is necessary to have fuzzy output when it is used as a controller.

• A defuzzification unit would be there with FIS to convert fuzzy variables into crisp variables.

Functional Blocks of FIS The following five functional blocks will help you understand the
construction of FIS –

• Rule Base − It contains fuzzy IF-THEN rules.

• Database − It defines the membership functions of fuzzy sets used in fuzzy rules

• Decision-making Unit − It performs operation on rules.

• Fuzzification Interface Unit − It converts the crisp quantities into fuzzy quantities.

• Defuzzification Interface Unit − It converts the fuzzy quantities into crisp quantities.

Following is a block diagram of fuzzy interference system.

Working of FIS The working of the FIS consists of the following steps –

• A fuzzification unit supports the application of numerous fuzzification methods, and converts
the crisp input into fuzzy input.

• A knowledge base - collection of rule base and database is formed upon the conversion of crisp
input into fuzzy input.

• The defuzzification unit fuzzy input is finally converted into crisp output. Methods of FIS Let us
now discuss the different methods of FIS.

Following are the two important methods of FIS, having different consequent of fuzzy rules –

• Mamdani Fuzzy Inference System

• Takagi-Sugeno Fuzzy Model (TS Method) Fuzzy Inference Systems

Advantages

● Intuitive

● Well-suited to human input and more interpretable and rule-base

● Has widespread acceptance

● Computationally efficient
● Functions well with linear techniques, like PID control

● Functions with optimization and adaptive techniques

● Guarantees output surface continuity

● Well-suited to mathematical analysis

Disadvantages of Fuzzy Interference system Let us look at the drawbacks of Fuzzy Logic systems:

• The accuracy of these systems is compromised as the system mostly works on inaccurate data
and inputs

• There is no single systematic approach to solve a problem using Fuzzy Logic. As a result, many
solutions arise for a particular problem, leading to confusion

• Due to inaccuracy in results, they are not always widely accepted

• A major drawback of Fuzzy Logic control systems is that they are completely dependent on
human knowledge and expertise

• You have to regularly update the rules of a Fuzzy Logic control system

• These systems cannot recognize machine learning or neural networks

• The systems require a lot of testing for validation and verification

Applications of FIS A fuzzy inference system is used in different fields, for example, information
order, choice examination, master system, time arrangement forecasts, advanced mechanics, and
example acknowledgment. It is otherwise called a fuzzy rule-based system, fuzzy model, fuzzy
logic controller, fuzzy expert system, and fuzzy associative memory.
 CHAPTER-6

MATLAB & SIMULINK

6.1 MATLAB

6.1.1 Introduction

MATLAB® is a high-level technical computing language and interactive environment for

algorithm development, data visualization, data analysis, and numeric computation. Using the
MATLAB product, you can solve technical computing problems faster than with traditional
programming languages, such as C, C++, and FORTRAN.

MATLAB is used in wide range of applications, including signal and image processing,
communications, control design, test and measurement, financial modeling and analysis, and
computational biology. Add-on toolboxes (collections of special-purpose MATLAB functions,
available separately) extend the MATLAB environment to solve particular classes of problems in
these application areas.

MATLAB provides a number of features for documenting and sharing your work. You can
integrate your MATLAB code with other languages and applications, and distribute your
MATLAB algorithms and applications.

6.1.2 Key Features

 High-level language for technical computing

 Development environment for managing code, files, and data

 Interactive tools for iterative exploration, design, and problem solving

 Mathematical functions for linear algebra, statistics, Fourier analysis, filtering,

optimization, and numerical integration
 2-D and 3-D graphics functions for visualizing data

 Tools for building custom graphical user interfaces

  Functions for integrating MATLAB based algorithms with external applications and

languages, such as C, C++, Fortran, Java, COM, and Microsoft Excel

6.2 SIMULINK

6.2.1 Introduction

Simulink® is an environment for multidomain simulation and Model-Based Design for dynamic
and embedded systems. It provides an interactive graphical environment and a customizable set of
block libraries that let you design, simulate, implement, and test a variety of time-varying systems,
including communications, controls, signal processing, video processing, and image processing.

Add-on products extend Simulink software to multiple modeling domains, as well as

provide tools for design, implementation, and verification and validation tasks.

Simulink is integrated with MATLAB®, providing immediate access to an extensive range

of tools that let you develop algorithms, analyze and visualize simulations, create batch processing
scripts, customize the modeling environment, and define signal, parameter, and test data.

6.2.2 Key Features

 Extensive and expandable libraries of predefined blocks

 Interactive graphical editor for assembling and managing intuitive block diagrams
 Ability to manage complex designs by segmenting models into hierarchies of design
components
 Model Explorer to navigate, create, configure, and search all signals, parameters,
properties, and generated code associated with your model
 Application programming interfaces (APIs) that let you connect with other simulation
programs and incorporate hand-written code
 Embedded MATLAB™ Function blocks for bringing MATLAB algorithms into Simulink
and embedded system implementations
 Simulation modes (Normal, Accelerator, and Rapid Accelerator) for running simulations
interpretively or at compiled C-code speeds using fixed- or variable-step solvers
  Graphical debugger and profiler to examine simulation results and then diagnose
performance and unexpected behavior in your design
 Full access to MATLAB for analyzing and visualizing results, customizing the modeling
environment, and defining signal, parameter, and test data
 Model analysis and diagnostics tools to ensure model consistency and identify modeling
errors.

6.2.3 Block Diagram

A Simulink block diagram is a pictorial model of a dynamic system. It consists of a set of

symbols, called blocks, interconnected by lines. Each block represents an elementary dynamic
system that produces an output either continuously (a continuous block) or at specific points
in time (a discrete block). The lines represent connections of block inputs to block outputs.
Every block in a block diagram is an instance of a specific type of block. The type of the block
determines the relationship between a block's outputs and its inputs, states, and time. A block
diagram can contain any number of instances of any type of block needed to model a system.
Blocks represent elementary dynamic systems that Simulink knows how to simulate. A block
comprises one or more of the following:

1) A set of inputs,
2) A set of states, and
3) A set of outputs
A block's output is a function of time and the block's inputs and states (if any). The specific
function that relates a block's output to its inputs, states, and time depends on the type of block of
which the block is an instance. Continuous Versus discrete Blocks Simulink standard block set
includes continuous blocks and discrete blocks. Continuous blocks respond continuously to
continuously changing input. Discrete blocks, by contrast, respond to changes in input only at
integral multiples of a fixed interval called the block's sample time. Discrete blocks hold their
output constant between successive sample time hits. Each discrete block includes a sample time
parameter that allows you to specify its sample rate. The Simulink blocks can be either continuous
or discrete, depending on whether they are driven by continuous or discrete blocks. A block that
can be either discrete or continuous is said to have an implicit sample rate. The implicit sample
time is continuous if any of the block's inputs are continuous. The implicit sample time is equal to
the shortest input sample time if all the input sample times are integral multiples of the shortest
time. Otherwise, the input sample time is equal to the fundamental sample time of the inputs, where
the fundamental sample time of a set of sample times is defined as the greatest integer divisor of
the set of sample times.

Simulink can optionally color code a block diagram to indicate the sample times of the blocks it contains, e.g.,
black (continuous), magenta (constant), yellow (hybrid), red (fastest discrete), and so on. The block contains block
name, icon, and block library that contain the block, the purpose of the block

6.2.4 Simulink Block Libraries

Simulink organizes its blocks into block libraries according to their behavior:

1) The Sources library contains blocks that generate signals.

2) The Sinks library contains blocks that display or write block output.
3) The Discrete library contains blocks that describe discrete-time components.
4) The Continuous library contains blocks that describe linear functions.
5) The Math library contains blocks that describe general mathematics functions.
6) The Functions & Tables library contains blocks that describe general functions and table
look-up operations.
7) The Nonlinear library contains blocks that describe nonlinear functions.
8) The Signal & Systems library contains blocks that allow multiplexing and demultiplexing,
implement external input/output, pass data to other parts of the model, and perform other
functions.
9) The Subsystems library contains blocks for creating various types of subsystems.
10) The Block sets and Toolboxes library contains the Extras block library of specialized
blocks.

6.2.5 Sub Systems

Simulink allows to model a complex system as a set of interconnected subsystems each of

which is represented by a block diagram. We create a subsystem using Simulink's Subsystem block
and the Simulink model editor. We can embed subsystems with subsystems to any depth to create
hierarchical models. We can create conditionally executed subsystems that are executed only when
a transition occurs on a triggering or enabling input.

6.2.6 Solvers

Simulink simulates a dynamic system by computing its states at successive time step solver a specified time
span, using information provided by the model. The process of computing the successive states of a system from its
model is known as solving the model. No single method of solving a model suffices for all systems. Accordingly,
Simulink provides a set of programs, known as solvers, that each embody a particular approach to solving a model.
The Simulation Parameters dialog box allows us to choose the solver most suitable for our model.

6.2.6.1 Fixed-Step Solvers

Fixed-step solvers solve the model at regular time intervals from the beginning to the end of the simulation.
The size of the interval is known as the step-size. We can specify the step size or let the solver choose the step size.
Generally decreasing the step size increases the accuracy of the results while increasing the time required to simulate
the system.

6.2.6.2 Variable-Step Solvers

Variable-step solvers vary the step size during the simulation, reducing the step size to increase accuracy when
a model's states are changing rapidly and increasing the step size to avoid taking unnecessary steps when the model's
states are changing slowly. Computing the step size adds to the computational overhead at each step but can reduce
the total number of steps, and hence simulation time, required to maintain a specified level of accuracy for models
with rapidly changing or piecewise continuous states.

6.2.6.3 Continuous Solvers

Continuous solvers use numerical integration to compute a model's continuous states at the
current time step from the states at previous time steps and the state derivatives. Continuous solvers
rely on the model's blocks to compute the values of the model's discrete states at each time step.
Mathematicians have developed a wide variety of numerical integration techniques for solving the
ordinary differential equations (ODEs) that represent the continuous states of dynamic systems.
Simulink provides an extensive set of fixed-step and variable-step continuous solvers, each
implementing a specific ODE solution method. Some continuous solvers subdivide the simulation
time span into major and minor steps, where a minor time step represents a subdivision of the
major time step. The solver produces a result at each major time step. It uses results at the minor
time steps to improve the accuracy of the result at the major time step.

6.2.6.4 Discrete Solvers

Discrete solvers exist primarily to solve purely discrete models. They compute the next simulation time-step
for a model and nothing else. They do not compute continuous states and they rely on the model's blocks to update
the model's discrete states. We can use a continuous solver, but not a discrete solver, to solve a model that contains
both continuous and discrete states.

This is because a discrete solver does not handle continuous states. If you select a discrete solver for a continuous
model, Simulink disregards your selection and uses a continuous solver instead when solving the model.
Simulink provides two discrete solvers, a fixed-step discrete solver and a variable-step discrete solver. The
fixed-step solver by default chooses a step size and hence simulation rate fast enough to track state changes in the
fastest block in our model. The variable-step solver adjusts the simulation step size to keep pace with the actual rate
of discrete state changes in our model. This can avoid unnecessary steps and hence shorten simulation time for
multirate models.

6.3 The Power System Block Set

Electrical power systems are combinations of electrical circuits and Electro-mechanical

devices, like motors and generators. Engineers working in this discipline are frequently tasked to
improve the performance of the systems. Requirements for drastically increased efficiency have
forced power system designers to use power electronic devices and sophisticated control system
concepts that tax traditional analysis tools and techniques. Further complicating the analyst’s role
is the fact that the system is often so nonlinear that the only way to understand it is through
simulation. Land-based power generation from hydroelectric, steam, or other devices is not the
only use of power systems. A common attribute of these systems is their use of power electronics
and control systems to achieve their performance objectives. The Power System Block set was
designed to provide a modern design tool that will allow scientists and engineers to rapidly and
easily build models that simulate power systems. The block set uses the Simulink® environment
allowing a model to be built using simple click and drag procedures. Not only can the circuit
topology be drawn rapidly, but the analysis of the circuit can include its interactions with
mechanical, thermal, control, and other disciplines. This is possible because all the electrical parts
of the simulation interact with Simulink extensive modeling library. Because Simulink uses
MATLAB® as the computational engine, you can use MATLAB’s toolboxes as you design your
simulation.

The block set can be put to work rapidly. The libraries contain models of typical power
equipment, such as transformers, lines, machines, and power electronics. These models are proven
ones coming from textbooks, and their validity is based on the experience of the Power Systems
Testing and Simulation Laboratory of Hydro-Québec, a large North American utility located in
Canada.

The capabilities of the block set for modeling a typical electrical grid are illustrated in
demonstration files. The block set fits well with other specialized analytical tools you use in the
power system community.

6.4 Simulink Blocks used in the Simulation:

1. Three-Phase Source:

Purpose: Implement three-phase source with internal R-L impedance

Description: The Three-Phase Source block implements a balanced three-phase voltage source
with internal R-L impedance. The three voltage sources are connected in Y with a neutral
connection that can be internally grounded or made accessible. You can specify the source internal
resistance and inductance either directly by entering R and L values or indirectly by specifying the
source inductive short-circuit level and X/R ratio.

2. in port:

Purpose: Provide a link to an external input and for linearization.

Description: In ports are the links from the outside world into a system. Inside a subsystem block,
there is an in port corresponding to each input port on the block. A signal that arrives at an input
port on a subsystem block flows out of the corresponding in port within that block. The imports
within a subsystem block must be numbered consecutively, starting with1.

3.out port:

Purpose: provide a link to an external output and for linearization.

Description: The Out port block provides a mechanism for labeling a system’s outputs. In a
subsystem, output ports correspond to outputs on the subsystem block.

4. Subsystem:

Purpose: Group blocks into a subsystem

Description: Subsystem blocks represent one system within another system. Any set of blocks
and lines can be converted to a Subsystem block with the Group command on the options menu.
The Group command removes all selected objects from the active window and replaces them
within a Subsystem block. This new block, when opened, redisplays all of the grouped objectives.

5. Gain:

Purpose: Multiply its input by a constant.

Description: The Gain block implements Y=KU, where Y is the output, U is the input, and K is the specified gain.
The Gain block displays scalar gain data entered as variable or a constant. The block displays the text as it appears in
the dialog box.
6. Scope:
Purpose: Display signals during simulation.

Description: While the simulation is running, the Scope block displays the output of the block
driving it. Opening a scope block produces a scope window. The title of this window matches the
name of the block.

7. Simplified Synchronous Machine:

Purpose: Model the dynamics of a simplified three-phase synchronous machine

Description: The Simplified Synchronous Machine block models both the electrical and
mechanical characteristics of a simple synchronous machine. The electrical system for each phase
consists of a voltage source in series with RL impedance, which implements the internal
impedance of the machine. The value of R can be zero but the value of L must be positive.

8. Voltage Measurement:

Purpose: Measure a voltage in a circuit

Description: The Voltage Measurement block is used to measure the instantaneous voltage
between two electric nodes. The output is a Simulink signal that can be used
by other Simulink blocks.

9. Breaker:

Purpose: Implement a circuit breaker opening at current zero crossing

Description: The Breaker block implements a circuit breaker that is controlled by a Simulink
signal applied on its second input. The control signal must be 0 or 1, 0 for open and 1 for closed.
The arc extinction process is simulated by opening the breaker when the current passes through
zero (first current zero-crossing following the transition of the Simulink control input from 1 to 0).
When the breaker is closed, it behaves as a series RL circuit. The R and L values can be set as
small as necessary in order to be negligible compared with external components (typical values
Ron=10m?, Lon=10µH). When the breaker is open, it has infinite impedance. If the breaker’s
initial state is set to 1 (closed), initializes all the states of the linear circuit and breaker initial current
so that the simulation starts in steady-state.

10. Bus bar:

Purpose: Implement a labeled network node

Description: The Bus Bar block is used to interconnect components. It allows multiple electrical
block outputs and inputs to be connected together.
11. Current Measurement:

Purpose: Measure a current in a circuit

Description: The Current Measurement block is used to measure the instantaneous current
flowing in any electrical block or connection line. The first output provides a Simulink signal that
can be used by other Simulink blocks.

12.Distributed Parameter Line:

Purpose: Implement an N-phase distributed parameter transmission line model with lumped losses

Description: The Distributed Parameter Line block implements an N-phase distributed parameter
line model with lumped losses.

13.Excitation System:
Purpose: Provide an excitation system for the synchronous machine and regulate its terminal
voltage in generating mode

Description: The basic elements that form the Excitation System block are the voltage regulator
and the exciter. The voltage regulator consists of a main regulator with gain Ka and time constant
Ta and a lead-lag compensator with time constants Tb and Tc. A derivate feedback is also provided
with gain Kf and time constant Tf. The limits Efmin and Efmax are imposed to the output of the
voltage regulator. The upper limit can be constant and equal to Efmax or variable and equal to the
rectified stator terminal voltage Vtf times a proportional gain Kp. If Kp is set to zero, the former
will apply. If Kp is set to a positive value, the latter will apply. The stator terminal voltage
transducer is represented by a first-order low-pass filter with time constant Tr.

14. Steam Turbine and Governor:

Purpose: Model a steam turbine and a PID governor system

Description: The Steam Turbine and Governor implement a steam turbine model, a PID governor
system, and a servo-motor. The static gain of the governor is equal to the inverse of the permanent
droop Rp in the feedback loop. The input to this feedback loop can be selected to be the gate
position or the electrical power deviation by setting the droop reference parameter in the dialog
box to one or zero, respectively.

15. Linear Transformer:

Purpose: Implement a two- or three-winding linear transformer

Description: The Linear Transformer block model shown below consists of three coupled
windings wound on the same core.

16. Saturable Transformer:

Purpose: Implement a two- or three-winding saturable transformer

Description: The Saturable Transformer block model shown below consists of three coupled
windings wound on the same core.
 CHAPTER-7

SIMUALTION RESULTS

Fig 13. Simulation diagram of solar powered DC fast charging Using ANFIS technology with lithium-ion battery

Fig 11. Sub system of AI based ANFIS controller

IV SIMULATION RESULTS

Fig 15. Solar output Voltage, current and power

The above figure illustrates the PV voltage and PV current generated by a PV solar panel under specific
conditions of 1000 irradiations and 25 degrees temperature, exhibiting minimal ripple content. This output is then
fed into the ANFIS controller to obtain a regulated output voltage, which is subsequently stored in the battery.

Fig 16. Controlled switching pulses at each switch of two input and output converter
Fig 17. Transmitter coil/ primary winding voltage and current

Fig 18. Receiving coil/ secondary winding voltage and current

 Fig 19. Battery State of charge, Battery current and Battery voltage

The aforementioned figure displays the Battery State of Charge, Battery Voltage, and Battery Current.
Initially, the battery has a charge of 27%. Through the efficient utilization of PV energy source, the battery is charged
by 73% within a time period of 1 second. The output voltage and current exhibit minimal ripple content.
 CONCLUSION
designed and simulated the model using MATLAB SIMULINK software. The results indicate that the electric
vehicle was able to charge up to 70% in less than an hour. In this approach, the vehicle's battery was charged using
renewable solar energy through a wireless connection based on the mutual inductance principle, employing a Dual
Active Bridge converter. The output of the Dual Active Bridge converter was effectively regulated using an Artificial
Intelligence-based ANFIS controller. Battery is recharges itself through regenerative braking when brake applies.
Additionally, energy flowed in both directions, from the grid to the vehicle and from the vehicle to the grid. The results
demonstrated that this proposed system is highly efficient and cost-effective.