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Color Combination

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DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-89862-5_226

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C

Color Combination another: Two colors already determine a certain

kind of combination.
José Luis Caivano
Universidad de Buenos Aires, and Conicet,
Secretaria de Investigaciones FADU-UBA, Overview
Buenos Aires, Argentina
Color combination is, in principle, an aspect of
color syntax. All perceptible colors can be orga-
Synonyms nized in the so-called color order systems or
models. This is usually made by means of three
Color coordination; Color harmony; Color mix- color variables or dimensions, for instance, hue,
ture; Color syntax; Color union saturation, and lightness (HSL), or hue, blackness,
and chromaticness (according to the Natural
Color System), or hue, value, and chroma
Definition (according to the Munsell color system), or some
other similar triad of variables. These color order
Color combination is mainly an aspect of color systems allow for the precise identification and
syntax. To combine means to put one thing in notation of colors and their arrangement in a log-
relation to another, or several things together, so ical way. Some of the systems even allow pre-
that the individuals lose significance and the dicting the results of color mixtures. It is possible
meaning of the whole predominates. To combine to compare color order systems to dictionaries,
also means to organize an ordered sequence. In which assemble all the words available in a lan-
some cases, it acquires the sense of mixing or guage in alphabetical order. Therefore, color order
merging. However, mixing color pigments or systems arrange and organize all the colors that
lights normally yields just one color as the result humans can see, produce, and use, according to
of the mixture, and in this sense, it cannot be certain sequences determined by the mentioned
termed a color combination, for which two or color variables.
more colors in some relation must be perceived. This possibility of having the repertoire of all
Combination certainly is very closely connected perceptible colors orderly arranged facilitates the
to harmonization and coordination. Color combi- selection of colors, by following certain criteria, in
nation, thus, is meant whenever there is more than order to use them in artistic compositions, archi-
one color associated, related, or harmonized with tectural works, or pieces of design. Only in few
rare occasions (for instance, in experimental
© Springer Science+Business Media LLC 2023
R. Shamey (ed.), Encyclopedia of Color Science and Technology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-27851-8_226-3
2 Color Combination

situations) colors are seen isolated; in the great Syntactic Color Combinations
majority of cases (both in nature and in human
productions), colors appear in a context where Spatial Color Combinations
there are also other colors. That is to say, every The spatial color combinations have, at first, some
color is combined in a certain way with other basic and elementary rules. In terms of the abstract
colors. Such as words (which in a dictionary and logical possibilities and from the point of
appear isolated) are combined with other words view of spatial arrangements, three possible
in order to make sentences with some sense and cases can be pointed out for two-color combina-
give origin to poetry, narrative, essay, etc., and in tions in a two-dimensional space:
the same way as sounds are combined by a music
composer to give origin to musical pieces, so 1. That one color is applied over and inside
colors are grouped in larger compositional units. another (interiority).
It is the context, the particular combination, the 2. That both colors partially overlap each other
way in which colors are grouped together and (overlapping).
related to one another, what gives a certain kind 3. That they are juxtaposed one beside the other
of signification or meaning, some utility to the (juxtaposition).
whole composition and to each of the involved
colors. The possibility of both colors being some dis-
Painters dispose and mix colors in their palettes tance apart is not considered here because in this
with the final aim of combining them in a canvas. case the color filling the separation, the back-
Architects combine materials with different natu- ground, appears as a third color. In addition,
ral colors in a building or use paints to endorse there is no sense in considering a total superposi-
different parts of their work with color. Film- tion of both colors (both occupying exactly the
makers and directors of photography decide same space), because in this case the result is just
about the color sequences that appear in succes- one color, and hence, this cannot be termed a color
sive scenes of the film. Clothing and fashion combination.
designers think about the chromatic combinations These three possibilities produce different
of the apparels they produce. Landscape designers results or have different consequences for color
choose and arrange the botanical species and other light and for color-pigment combination and also
materials taking into account also color combina- differ if there is a mixture or blending of the
tions. It is possible to continue providing this kind involved colors or if opaque color surfaces that
of examples almost indefinitely, because there is do not mix together are combined. Combining
practically no profession, discipline, or human colors imply that in some cases the colors are
activity in which color does not play a role. mixed and give origin to new colors. However,
If according to different authors and experi- if the result of the mixture is just one color, this
ments, the number of perceptible colors may will not be a color combination.
range, depending on various factors, from For instance, considering transparent color
2,000,000 to 7,000,000, the combinatorial possi- filters:
bilities rise to billions, even restricting them to the
minimal expression of just two- or three-color 1. If over an area of a transparent color filter A
combinations. Now, how are colors combined, another piece of color filter B is set in relation
with which kind of criteria, and in which type of of interiority, the outcome is two colors: color
contexts? At first, it is possible to talk about spa- A and a new color, C, which is the subtractive
tial and temporal contexts, depending on the mixture of A and B, while color B is missed.
colors being arranged simultaneously in an object 2. If the colors overlap, the result is three colors:
or successively in a certain temporal sequence. A, B, and C.
Color Combination 3

Color Combination, Fig. 1 Basic possibilities of two-color combinations in a two-dimensional space

3. In the case of juxtaposition, there is no color The variation in relative size of two color fields
mixture, so that the result is color A just besides may produce two opposite perceptual phenom-
color B. ena: color assimilation (or color spreading effect)
and simultaneous color contrast. Let us have an
These combinations with their respective alternating sequence of two color strips, for
results are shown in Fig. 1. instance yellow and gray, with different relative
The same happens with transparent inks and widths. When the yellow strip is wider than the
watercolors. Similar situations arise also when gray one, a simultaneous contrast occur, and the
A and B are colored lights, but in this case color gray stripes are perceived as tinged with the com-
C is the result of an additive mixture. The situa- plementary color of yellow, and look bluish
tions are quite different with opaque color sur- (i.e., more dissimilar to yellow). When the yellow
faces: In all cases, no new color C appears. stripes are very thin lines on the gray background
Additionally, in all situations – interiority, an assimilation is produced, and the same gray
overlapping, and juxtaposition – phenomena of looks now yellowish (i.e., more similar to yellow),
simultaneous contrast occur. Thus, considering when viewed from an appropriate distance
colors A and B in isolation, the perceptual result (Fig. 2). Actually, in Fig. 2b the yellow thin lines
of their combination is colors A1 and B1 (apart start to blend with the gray background or spread
from the cases in which color C appears), because over it because we are approximating a partitive or
each color is tinged with the ▶ complementary optical mixture. Color contrast increases the dif-
color of the other, according to the principles of ference between two colors, while color assimila-
simultaneous contrast. That is to say, color sensa- tion increases the resemblance between them, and
tions change from seeing color stimuli in isolation the appearance of one phenomenon or the other
to seeing color stimuli in combination. depends on the relative size of two combined
Now, if the combined colors have relatively colors.
small areas to be perceived individually, three Another aspect concerning the relative size of
situations may arise: (1) An additive mixture is combined color fields is the role that certain colors
produced when they consist of small pixels or play in a design. In three-color combinations, the
cells of color light (as in the case of the TV following categories are usually distinguished:
screen). (2) A partitive mixture occurs when they dominant or main color, secondary or subordinate
are small dots of surface colors (as with the poin- color, and accent color (Fig. 3). In architectural
tillist technique of painting). And (3) a mixed facades, interior decoration, clothing, and other
syntheses occur – partially subtractive and parti- branches of design, an empirical rule is often
tive – if the small dots are made of transparent inks applied: approximately 60% of the surface is
that in some zones overlap each other and in some given to the dominant color, around 30% is left
others are separated on the background (as in the for the secondary color, while the accent color
case of color printing). takes the remaining percent of the total surface
4 Color Combination

Color Combination, Fig. 2 Different proportions in the assimilation (right, where the gray looks yellowish).
combination of two color stimuli may produce simulta- Note: Both gray stimuli are equal to the horizontal stripe
neous contrast (left, where the gray looks bluish) or above

(around 10%). In general, high saturation or optical mixture of the colors involved in the
chromaticness is used for the accent color, while sequence will be produced. It also happens here
the dominant and secondary colors are usually that two or more colors combined in these condi-
less chromatic. In addition, a complementary con- tions give only one color as a result, the color that
trast of hue is often used between the accent color is the consequence of the optical mixture.
and the dominant and secondary pair. The key is
to create a contrast in terms of lightness, satura- Color Selection as the First Step for Harmonic
tion, and hue. Color Combinations
If some specific chromatic relations among the
Temporal Color Combinations combined colors are taken into account, the field
Phenomena of contrast appear whenever two or of color harmony appears. There are a lot of pro-
more colors are combined in a certain relation, but posals and theories about this. From a purely
if this is a temporal combination, where the colors syntactical point of view, paying attention to the
appear in a sequence, with certain durations and relations among the colors themselves and the
intervals, what is produced is a successive contrast quantity of colors combined (two or more colors),
or the phenomenon of post-image. it is possible to mention, for instance, a combina-
When the time span of visualization of a color tion of monochromatic colors, complementary
followed by another is long enough, an adaptation colors, split complementaries, double comple-
to the first stimulus occurs, and, therefore, the mentaries, analogs, color triads or trichrome com-
second stimulus is affected by the successive binations, tetrachrome combinations, etc.
color contrast. César Jannello proposed criteria to select
When the frequency of appearance of two or colors to be applied in a combination. Starting
more colors is fast enough to fall below the per- from the three color variables or dimensions –
ceptive threshold (as in a flickering situation), an for instance, hue, saturation, and lightness –
Color Combination 5

Color Combination, Fig. 3 (a) Three-color combination color combination: yellow 60% (dominant color), white
in dress: blue 66% (dominant color), cyan 26% (secondary 30% (secondary color), red 10% (accent color)
color), red 8% (accent color). (b) A facade with a three-

there are just eight possibilities for the selection of A Theory for Colors in Combination
colors, whether these variables are kept constant Anders Hård and Lars Sivik [1] have settled the
or change. In Fig. 4, the sign plus (+) means basis for a theory of colors in combination. They
constancy, and the sign minus ( ) represents var- have developed a structure that considers three
iation of the considered dimension. The first for- dimensions or factors that are useful to describe
mula, the one in which everything is constant, is or analyze color combinations: (1) color interval
not of much use because it gives as a result the (dealing with color discrimination and having dis-
selection of just one and the same color. In the tinctness of border, interval kind, and interval size
remaining formulas, where some type of variation as subvariables); (2) color chord (dealing with
appears, the interval of variation may be constant color identification and having complexity,
or may change according to some criterion, for chord category, and chord type as subvariables);
instance, by modifying hue, lightness, or satura- (3) color tuning (dealing with how color combi-
tion in regular steps or intervals, by increasing nations can be varied and having surface relations,
intervals, by choosing opposite poles, etc. This color relations, and order rhythm as subvariables).
model provides a logical basis to select and com- Figure 5 shows an outline of this model, published
bine colors for design purposes. by Hård in 1997 [2].
This model for color combination was worked
out along various years, and during its
6 Color Combination

Color Combination, Fig. 4 One example of Jannello’s criteria for selecting colors to be used in a color combination

development their concepts, dimensions, and sub- signals, indicate situations, propose behaviors,
variables were changing to some extent. Hård and communicate messages, etc., and all this can
Sivik published previous formulations of this the- vary according to the way in which colors are
ory in 1985 and 1994 [3, 4]. In some of these, for combined and according to the context, it is also
instance, the visual context in which the color possible to consider color combinations from a
combination appears is considered as a fourth semantic point of view.
and very important factor. Here is a simple example. The three colors of
the traffic lights (red, yellow, green) are a spatial
and temporal syntactical combination, on one
Semantic and Pragmatic Aspects in Color side. They make a triad of separated color lights,
Combinations displayed in a circular shape, that appear with a
spatially codified vertical arrangement: red at top,
At the beginning of this article, we have said that yellow in the middle, and green below. The tem-
the combination of colors is mainly a syntactical poral sequence is also regulated and codified:
aspect. But since colors have a semantic weight, yellow comes after green and red comes after
produce emotions, have meanings, are used as yellow. The step from red back to green is
Color Combination 7

Color Combination, Fig. 5 Outline of a color combination model by Anders Hård [2]

normally direct, without intermediation of yellow, that is important to notice and deserves to stand
and the same sequence appears again: green, yel- out (a red typo in a context of black letters and
low, and red. The size of each color has also a words). It means expulsion from the field in the
specific relationship: the red circular light has a context of a football (soccer) match. It may also
larger size than yellow and green. The same hap- connote speed or status in a car (a red Ferrari),
pens with the time interval or duration in which etc. Hence, it is the context (either the social,
each light is displayed: yellow appears for a brief cultural, geographic, or temporal context in
instant, while red and green have longer durations. which the colors appear, as well as the relationship
Now on, all these are purely syntactic aspects. with other colors that are in the same context or
Nothing has been said yet about what meaning situation) what endorses colors and color combi-
this selection, arrangement, and sequence of com- nations with a certain sense or meaning.
bined colors conveys. By entering in the semantic Color combinations have been studied from
domain, it is possible to talk about the codification the semantic point of view by various authors.
of those three colors in that particular context of Elda Cerrato points out the basic concepts behind
use. Red means “stop,” green means “go,” while the idea of color combination, discusses some
yellow is a warning about the change of light from color order systems and color harmony theories
green to red that is coming soon and imply that the related to this (mainly Ostwald, Munsell, and
user has to take the necessary caution, either apply Arnheim), and addresses the issue of how culture
the brakes to stop the vehicle or speed up the conditions harmonies, preferences, and aestheti-
march to make it through before the red light cal principles of color combinations [5].
appears. Shigenobu Kobayashi, working at the Nippon
Thus, there are also semantic issues that are Color and Design Research Institute, has devised
combined from a syntactical arrangement of a method to classify single colors or three-color
colors and the context in which they are used combinations by their associated images [6, 7].
and interpreted. The same red color used for the Through the analysis using the axes warm/cool,
traffic lights may have very different meanings in soft/hard, and clear/grayish as coordinates, this
other contexts. It may connote emotions such as method, which was also extended and developed
passion, love, and rage. It may indicate something with some collaborators [8, 9], can plot climatic
8 Color Combination

and cultural differences in color semantics. In reasonably representative of all color describing
1997, Kobayashi and Iwamatsu extended the variables.”
color combination research to be able to include Other authors have also used the semantic dif-
five-color combinations [10], even when from the ferential method to study the meanings of color
countless number of possible five-color combina- combinations, and more specifically their affec-
tions they chose to make the survey by selecting tive values, by applying this tool to two- and
20 pairs of contrasting combinations of five colors three-color harmonies [16, 17].
(40 color combinations in total). To justify that Colors, in general, and color combinations, in
particular research, they point out that “a particular, can be considered as a system of signs.
five-color combination makes it easier to gain a They certainly have syntactic aspects (which
psychological understanding of scenic conditions include both the elements and the combinatory),
and convey the sense of ambience than two- and semantic aspects, and pragmatic aspects that
three-color combinations.” imply the use of these signs by the interpreters.
The book by Hideaki Chijiiwa, from the In previous publications, the author of this entry
Musashino College of Art, at Musashino Art Uni- describes and illustrates various semiotic concepts
versity, intends to be a manual for choosing color with examples taken from color theory and pro-
combinations for different purposes, taking into vides an account of some of the advances of color
account meanings and mood [11]. For practical theory within the framework of semiotic catego-
applications in art, design, industry, or everyday ries [18, 19].
life, it provides a guide for selecting two-, three-, Some color theorists go even beyond these
and four-color combinations associated to adjec- considerations, proposing that colors and color
tives such as striking, tranquil, exciting, natural, combinations can be taken as a language, for
warm, cold, young, feminine, and surprising. As instance, Luckiesh in 1918 [20], Sanz in 1985
for the quantity of colors to be employed in a and 2009 [21, 22], Oberascher in 1993 [23], as
combination, the author advises to limit them to well as Hård in the already mentioned article
two or three. A warning is made when using four- published in 1997 [2]. However, this should be
color combinations that should be selected very taken with certain caution. Human languages (for
carefully, while five-color combinations are instance, verbal languages, English, Spanish,
directly discouraged. The book by Bride French, German, etc.) serve not only for commu-
M. Whelan continues in the same venue [12]. nicational purposes but also for cognitive and
Lars Sivik (working sometimes in collabora- modeling purposes; they allow to build catego-
tion with Anders Hård and Charles Taft) carried ries, models, and theories about the world, in
out research on the meanings of color combina- order to understand it, explain it, and make it
tions [13–15]. The descriptive model uses the meaningful for the human species. If it is possible
Natural Color System as a basis, and the methods to demonstrate that color combinations can have a
are aimed at studying the stability and variability similar status, then the color-language idea will be
of color-meaning associations across time and more than just a metaphor.
cultures. These studies “literally mapped the
world of color with respect to how associations
to various words systematically vary across dif- Cross-References
ferent parts of the color world.” In the research
published in 1989, Sivik selected 130 words by a ▶ Color Contrast
semantic differential scaling method, and the sub- ▶ Color Harmony
jects judged color images as “to how well the ▶ Color Order Systems
different word went with the color composition ▶ Color Scheme
in question” [15]. The main purpose was “to ▶ Complementary Colors
obtain a small number of variables that would be ▶ Palette
Color Combination 9

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