By Eng.

Omuzi

Mathematical Modelling of
Control Systems
A mathematical model is a set of equations that represents the dynamics of a
physical system. A system may be represented by different mathematical models
depending on one’s perspective. Dynamics of various systems e.g. electrical,
mechanical, biological, etc. may be described using differential equations which are
obtained from physical laws governing the system. In Control systems, models can
be classified as;
i) Differential equation models: defines the dynamic behavior of physical
systems in terms of differential equations.
ii) Transfer function models: defines the dynamic behavior of physical systems
in terms of transfer functions. We can obtain the transfer function models
from differential equations by applying Laplace transforms.
iii) State space models:
We will focus on transfer function models which are more suitable for transient
response or frequency response analysis of single-input, single-output, linear time-
invariant systems.
The transfer function the ratio of the Laplace transform of the output to the
Laplace transform of the input.
Laplace transform of the t
=
Laplace transform of the
Linear Systems are systems which apply the Principle of Superposition which
states that:
“The response produced by the simultaneous application of several inputs is equal to the sum
of the individual responses of each input”

Linear Time-Invariant Systems are linear systems that are defined by linear
differential equations (with constant coefficients)

1. Modelling Electrical circuits

Basic laws governing electrical circuits are Kirchhoff’s Current Law and Voltage
Law.
Kirchhoff’s current law (node law) states that:

Engineering Control Systems

DIP 17 AVI-MECH (MOD 2 TERM 1)
 By Eng. Omuzi

“the algebraic sum of all currents entering and leaving a node is zero”.
OR
The sum of currents entering a node is equal to the sum of currents leaving
the same node.
Kirchhoff’s voltage law (loop law) states that:
“at any given instant the algebraic sum of the voltages around any loop in
an electrical circuit is zero.”
OR
“The sum of the voltage drops is equal to the sum of the voltage rises around
a loop.”
A mathematical model of an electrical circuit can be obtained by applying one or
both of Kirchhoff’s laws to it.
Example 1: Find the transfer function of the following RC circuit (LPF)
Solution
The resistor is in series with the capacitor since no
current flows to the open circuit across vo(t)
The Laplace transforms of the circuit elements are as
follows:
1
( )↔ ( ), ↔ , ↔ , ( )↔ ( )

By applying the voltage divider rule, the voltage across the capacitor is;
1
( )= ( )
1
+

Multiplying the numerator and denominator by Cs we obtain the following transfer

function;
( ) 1
=
( ) 1+

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DIP 17 AVI-MECH (MOD 2 TERM 1)
 By Eng. Omuzi

Example 2: Find the transfer function of the following RC circuit.

Solution
By applying the voltage divider rule, the voltage
across the resistor is;

( )= ( )
1
+

Multiplying the numerator and denominator by Cs we obtain the following transfer

function;
( ) RCs
=
( ) 1+
Example 3: Obtain the transfer function of the following RC nerwork.
v1 eo

Solution
Let the voltage drop across the C1 be v1
By applying KCL on node v1
( )− ( ) ( )− ( )
+ + =0

Taking the Laplace transforms;

( )− ( ) ( )− ( )
+ ( )+ =0

1 1 ( ) ( )
( ) + + = + … (1)

By applying KCL on node eo

( )− ( )
+ =0

Taking the Laplace transforms;

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DIP 17 AVI-MECH (MOD 2 TERM 1)
 By Eng. Omuzi

( )− ( )
+ ( )=0

1 ( )
+ ( )=

( )=( + 1) ( )… (2)
Substitute v1(s) into equation 1
1 1 ( ) ( )
( + 1) ( ) + + = +

1 ( )
( ) + + + + =

( ) 1
=
( ) +( + + ) +1

Example 4: The figure below shows an R-C network. Determine its transfer
function (6mks)

node1

Solution
The R1-C1 circuit is series with R2 hence i(t) is common.
Applying KCL at node1
( )= +
−
=

( − )
=

( )=

− ( − )
= +

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DIP 17 AVI-MECH (MOD 2 TERM 1)
 By Eng. Omuzi

Applying the Laplace transforms;

( ) ( )− ( )
= + ( ( )− ( ))

1 1 1
( ) + + = ( ) +

+ + 1+
( ) = ( )

The transfer function will be;

( ) +
=
( ) + +
2.Using Complex Impedance method
1 1 1
= + = +

=
( ) ( )
= =
( ) ( )+ ( ) 1
+ +

Example 5 Obtain the transfer function of the LRC network shown in the
figure below
Solution
Complex impedance method
Complex impedances for resistors, inductors and
capacitances are given by Z=R, Ls, 1/Cs respectively
For complex impedances connected in parallel, the
resultant impedance is
1 1 1
= + =
(1⁄ )+

ℎ = =1

For complex impedances connected in series, the resultant impedance is;

1
= +

Engineering Control Systems

DIP 17 AVI-MECH (MOD 2 TERM 1)
 By Eng. Omuzi

From voltage divider rule;

( ) ( )
=
( ) ( )+ ( )
1
( ) +
=
( ) 1 1
+ +
(1⁄ )+
( + )( + )
=
( + )( + )+
Example 6 Consider the electrical circuit shown. Obtain its transfer
function.
Solution
Method 1: Complex impedance
= +

=1

By voltage divider rule, the transfer function will be;

( ) ( ) 1
= =
( ) ( )+ ( ) + +1

( )
=
( ) + +
Method2: Using KVL
1
+ + =

1
=

11
( )+ ( )+ ( )= ( )

11
( )= ( )

( )
=
( ) + +

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DIP 17 AVI-MECH (MOD 2 TERM 1)
 By Eng. Omuzi

Practical Systems
DC motors
1. Transfer Function of Armature Controlled DC Motor
The speed of DC motor is directly proportional to armature voltage and inversely
proportional to flux in field winding. In armature-controlled DC motor, the desired
speed is obtained by varying the armature voltage.
The electrical system consists of the armature and the field circuit but for analysis
purpose, only the armature circuit is considered because the field is excited by a
constant voltage. The mechanical system consists of the rotating part of the motor
and load connected to its shaft. The armature-controlled DC motor speed control
system is shown in the below figure.

Ra La

By Kirchhoff’s voltage law,

+ + =

Torque of a DC motor is proportional to the product of flux and current. Since flux is
constant, torque is proportional to alone.
∝
=
The differential equation governing the mechanical system of motor is given by;

+ =

The back e.m.f. of DC machine is proportional to angular velocity of shaft;

Engineering Control Systems

DIP 17 AVI-MECH (MOD 2 TERM 1)
 By Eng. Omuzi

On taking Laplace transform of the above equations with zero initial conditions we
get;
( ) + ( )+ ( )= ( ) … (1)
( )= ( ) … (2)
( )+ ( ) = ( ) … (3)
( )= ( ) … (4)

Equating (2) and (3) we get;

( )= ( )+ ( )
( + )
( )= ( ) … (5)

Equation (1) can be written as;

( + ) ( )+ ( )= ( ) … (6)

Substituting for Eb(s) & Ia(s) from (4), (5) respectively in equation (6)
( + )
( + ) ( )+ ( )= ( )

( + )( + )+
( )= ( )

The transfer function is:

( )
=
( ) ( + )( + )+

=
+ + + +

=
[ +( + ) +( + )]
( ) ⁄
=
( ) + +
+ +

Engineering Control Systems

DIP 17 AVI-MECH (MOD 2 TERM 1)
 By Eng. Omuzi

2. Modelling of Mechanical Systems

Involves modeling of Translational and rotational mechanical systems
Translational: motion along a straight line
Rotational: Motion of a body around its own axis
Basic elements of translational mechanical system:
Mass: represents inertia of a body
Spring: represents the elastic deformation of materials
Damper: Represents opposition to motion in mechanical systems
Translational Systems

(a) Spring
An elastic element is assumed to produce a displacement proportional to the force
applied to it.

F F
For an ideal translational spring (assuming negligible inertia and friction);
Force ∝ Displacement
( )> ( ) ℎ

= ( )− ( )

Where ( ) − (t) is the spring displacement and K is the spring constant which
depends on the spring material
Example: Consider a system consisting of two springs in parallel (a) and two
springs in series (b). Obtain the equivalent spring constants for the systems shown in
Figures (a) and (b), respectively.

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 By Eng. Omuzi

(a) For springs in parrallel, force is distributed into each spring. The equivalent
spring constant keq is obtained by;
= + =

= +

(b) For springs in series, the same force is transmitted in each spring. Thus, the
equivalent spring constant keq is obtained by;
= = ( − )

Elimination of y from these equations gives;

= −

+
= + =

The equivalent spring constant keq is;

= = =
+ +

(b) Damper
An oil-filled damper is often called a dashpot. A dashpot is a device that provides
viscous friction, or damping. It consists of a piston and oil-filled cylinder. Any
relative motion between the piston rod and the cylinder is resisted by the oil
because the oil must flow around the piston (or through orifices provided in the
piston) from one side of the piston to the other.
A damper produces a velocity proportional to the force applied to it.
xo(t)
F

For the translational system;

Force ∝ velocity

= ( )=

Where b is the damping coefficient and v(t) the velocity of the piston inside the
cylinder.

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DIP 17 AVI-MECH (MOD 2 TERM 1)
 By Eng. Omuzi

Example: Consider a system consisting of two dampers in parallel (a) and two
dampers in series (b).

(a) For dampers in parallel, force is distributed among the damping elements. The
equivalent damping coefficient is;

̇= ̇=

= ( ̇ − ̇) + ( ̇ − ̇)
=( + )( ̇ − ̇ )

Taking beq as = +

= ( ̇ − ̇)

(b) For dampers in series, the same force is transmitted across the damping
elements. Considering displacements x, z and y, the damping coefficient can be
obtained by;
= ( ̇ − ̇) = ( ̇ − ̇) … 1
( + ) ̇= ̇+ ̇
1
̇= ( ̇+ ̇) 2
+
Substituiting equation 2 into 1
1
= ( ̇ − ̇) = ̇− ( ̇+ ̇)
+

= ( ̇ − ̇)
+

(c) Mass
The force to accelerate a body is the product of its mass and acceleration (Newton’s
2nd Law)

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DIP 17 AVI-MECH (MOD 2 TERM 1)
 By Eng. Omuzi

xo(t)

m F

For an ideal translational system with negligible damping and elasticity;

Force ∝ Acceleration

= ( )= =

where m is mass, a(t) is the acceleration of the mass

Therefore a complete translational mechanical system has mass, spring and damper
elements as shown below:

Mechanical systems’s models are derived using D’Alermebrt’s Principle which states
that: For any body, the algebraic sum of externally applied forces and the forces
opposing the motion in any given direction is zero.

( )− − − ( )=0

Or the Newton’s 2nd Law:

Example1: Obtain the transfer function model of the mass spring-damper

system shown in the firgure below. Xi(t) and Xo(t) represents the input and
output displacements; while K is the spring constant, C is the damping
coefficient and m is the mass.

Engineering Control Systems

DIP 17 AVI-MECH (MOD 2 TERM 1)
 By Eng. Omuzi

( − )− =

− = +

+ + =

By taking the Laplace transforms assuming zero initial conditions, we obtain the
transfer function model.
( + + ) ( )= ( )
( )
=
( ) + +
Example 2: Consider the spring-mass-dashpot system mounted on a
massless cart as shown in the Figure below. In this system, u(t) is the input
displacement of the cart and y (t) is the output displacement; m denotes the
mass, b is the damping coefficient, and k is the spring constant.
Assuming that the frictional force F of the dashpot is proportional to ̇ − ̇ and that
the spring is a linear spring; that is, the spring force is proportional to − obtain
the mathematical model of this system.

Spring-mass dashpot system mounted on a cart

Solution
From Newton’s 2nd Law,

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DIP 17 AVI-MECH (MOD 2 TERM 1)
 By Eng. Omuzi

Where ∑ is the summation of all forces acting on the mass in the direction of the
acceleration a.

=− − − ( − )

+ + = +

This is the differential equation model. By taking the Laplace transforms assuming
zero initial conditions, we obtain the transfer function model.
( + + ) ( )=( + ) ( )
( ) +
= ( )= =
( ) + +
For more information, check this link:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Wv2MgI2sFkM
Example 3 The Figure below is a simplified version of an automobile or
motorcycle suspension system. Obtain its transfer function Y(s)/U(s).
The input u is a displacement input. Assume that displacements x and y are
measured from their respective steady-state positions in the absence of the
input u.
Solution
Applying the Newton’s second law

̇= ̈=

̈= ( − ) + ( ̇ − ̇) + ( − )
̈ =− ( − ) − ( ̇ − ̇)

Collecting like terms;

̈+ ̇ +( + ) = ̇+ +
̈+ ̇+ = ̇+
Taking Laplace transforms of these two equations, assuming
zero initial conditions;

Engineering Control Systems

DIP 17 AVI-MECH (MOD 2 TERM 1)
 By Eng. Omuzi

[ + +( + )] ( ) = [ + ] ( )+ ( ) … (1)
[ + + ] ( )=[ + ] ( ) … (2)

Eliminating X(s) by substituting equation (2) into (1), we have;

+ +
( + + + ) ( )=[ + ] ( )+ ( )
+
( ) ( + )
=
( ) +( + ) +[ +( + ) ] + +
Example 4: Obtain the transfer function of the system shown in the Figure
below.

Solution:
̈ + ̇ + ( − )=0
̈ + ( − )=

Taking Laplace transforms of these two equations, assuming zero initial conditions;
[ + + ] ( )− ( ) = 0 … (1)

( + ) ( )− ( ) = ( ) … (2)

Eliminating Y1(s) by substituting equation (2) into (1), we have;

( + ) ( )− ( )
( )=

( + ) ( )− ( )
[ + + ] − ( )=0

( + + + + + ) ( )− ( )− ( )
=0

( + +( + ) + ) ( ) ( )
=

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DIP 17 AVI-MECH (MOD 2 TERM 1)
 By Eng. Omuzi

( )
=
( ) + +( + ) +
Example 5: Obtain the transfer function Xo(s)/Xi(s) of the mechanical
system shown in the following Figure.

Solution:
Equation of motion of the system is given by:
( ̇ − ̇ )+ ( − )= ( ̇ − ̇)
( ̇ − ̇) =

Taking Laplace transforms of these two equations;

( ( )− ( )) + ( ( )− ( )) = ( ( )− ( ))
( ( )− ( )) = ( )
Eliminating Y(s) from the last two equations, then we obtain;
( )
( ( )− ( )) + ( ( )− ( )) = ( )−
+

( + ) ( )= + + − ( )
+
The transfer function can be obtained as;

( ) + +
=
( ) + + +

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