Strong and weak forms

The words with no stress are weakened ( usually vowel reduced to a schwa and it is pronounced faster), this

weakened form is called weak form as opposed to strong form which is the full form of the word pronounced

with stress.

There are two types of words at the level of English sentence.

1)Content words(lexical words): they take a strong form.

2)Function or grammar words: they are usually unstressed. Native speakers use weak forms all the time daily

in every single sentence unlike second language learners who use strong forms. These native speakers tend to

weaken the function words by reducing the /i/ and /u/ to become schwa / /. They weaken them to keep the

rhythm in their speech.

1)Function words take strong forms when they are pronounced in isolation.

e.g I/ / You/ / in/ /

2)They take strong form when they are in final position in a sentence.

e.g at what time do you go at school.

/……………………………………../

3)In opposite prepositions.

e.g I travel to and from London a lot

/…………………………………………../

4)When they are quoted or cited in a sentence.

e.g Don’t use “and” too much.

/…………………………………../
 Module: Phonetics Level: 2nd year

Part I: Word stress

In English, certain words have stress within a sentence, and certain syllables have
stress within a word. And it is this stress that allows our ears to understand the meaning and
also to pick up the important parts of the sentence. Stress is given to certain words while
other words are quickly spoken (some students say eaten or swallowed!). In other languages,
such as French or Italian, each syllable receives equal importance(there is stress,but each
syllable has its own length).English however, spends more time on specific stressed words
while quickly gliding over the other, less important,words.

In every word in English, there is one given/particular syllable that is emphasized.

The stressed syllable is usually marked in transcription by placing a small vertical line '
high up just before the syllable it relates to. But what is stress? You will most probably
agree that:

 The first syllable of words like‗father,‗open,‗camera is stressed;

 That the second syllable of words like‗potato,‗relation is stressed;

 And that the final syllable of words like‗about,‗receive is stressed.

What is word stress then?

Roach (2009) defines stress as the degree of force used in the pronounciation of a certain syllable.
Gimson (1989) refers to as a capacity of the pronunciation for the speaker and the higher sound for
the listner.

In multi syllable words, the stress falls on one of the syllables while the other syllables tend to be

spoken over quickly. For example, try saying the following words toyourself:qualify, banana,
understand.All of them have 3 syllables and one of the syllables in each word will sound louder than
the others: so, we get QUAlify, baNAna and underSTAND. (The syllables indicated in capitals are the
stressed syllables). What makes a syllable stressed? It is usually higher in pitch (the level of the
speaker‘s voice). It‘s pronounced louder.And finally, it is longer in duration. Stress can fall on the
first, middle , or last syllables of words.

Phonetic properties of stressed syllables :

*The stressed syllable has geater duration.

*The stressed syllable is louder.

*The stressed syllable is pronounced at a higher pitch.

Types of stress :
1)Primary stress : when we pronounce certain words, we put stress on certain syllables. There are
some syllables which are very prominent and strong due to the effect of stress. Primary stress
represents the maximal prominence of the syllable in a word ( Colins and Mess, 2013). Roach (2009)
mentions that primary stress is on the strongest syllable in a word which appears to be more
prominent than other syllables. Primary stress can be marked with a higher vertical mark (‘) placed
above and in front of the syllable ( collins and Mess, 2013).

2)Secondary stress : in long words of more than one syllable, a type of stress can be observed, that is
weaker than primary stress. Gussenhoven and Jacobs(2011) states that secondary stress is marked by
a lower vertical line.

3)Zero stress : refers to any syllable that receives no stress, and it is also called unstressed syllable.

* Every English word must have a primary stress. But the secondary stress is optional.

e.g public/………………./ responsibility/……………………………./

Placement of stress within the word :

A question that usually causes difficulty to foreign language learners of English is how can one select
the correct syllable or syllables to stress in Englishword. English word stress is not always on the
same syllable as in some languages. In French, for instance, the last syllable is usually stressed
whereas the syllable before the last or the penultimate one is usually stressed in Polish.

In order to decide on stress placement , it is necessary to make use of some or all of the following
information :

-Whether the word is morphologically simple, or whether it is complex as a result either of containing
one or more affixes or of being compound word.

-The grammatical category to which the word belongs (noun, verb, adjective….)

-The number of syllables in the word.

As such, the location of stress may be determined by a set of many complex rules. Therefore ,
predicting where the stress falls is not easy.

Some common rules of word stress( Primary stress)

I)Monosyllabic words :

Monosyllabic words are always stressed , but we don’t put the stress mark on them except in the
sentence stress. E.g fast/………………../

II)Disyllabic words :

1)Verbs : Most twwo syllable verbs are stressed on the second syllable.

a- In two syllable verbs, the second syllable is stressed if it contains :

*A long vowel e.g receive /……………………/, include/………………../

*A diphthong e.g arrive/………………./,

*vowel + more than one consonant e.g relax/………………./, resist/……………../

Exception : If the second syllable contains the diphthong / əʊ / alone , the first syllable is stressed
e.g follow/…………………/, borrow/……………./. But, if it contains the diphthong / əʊ / + consonant, we
stress the second syllable e.g decode/…………………./.

b-We stress the first syllable if the second syllable contains :

*Short vowel + only one consonant e.g profit/…………………../

*Short vowel alone e.g study/……………../

2)Nouns :

a-They are mostly stressed on the first syllable if the second syllable contains :

*A short vowel e.g parent/……………………./

b-We stress the second syllable if it contains :

*A long vowel e.g machine/………………../

*A diphthong e.g estate/………………./, design/………………/

Exception : If the second syllable contains a vowel + more than one consonant , we stress the first
syllable e.g protest/………………../

3)Adjectives : In two syllable adjectives, the first syllable is usually stressed . There are two major
rules we need to learn in details to know exactly how and when we should place our stress mark in
disyllabic adjectives.

a-In two syllable adjectives, we stress the first syllable if the second syllable contains :

*A short vowel + one final consonant e.g open/………../

*A short vowel alone e.g sunny/………………/

b-We stress the second syllable if it contains :

*A long vowel e.g complete/………………./

*A diphthong e.g alive/……………/

*A vowel + more than one consonant e.g corrupt/……………../

Exception :

**Perfect /……………………./ and honest /………………/ are stressed on the first syllable.
**If the second syllable contains only the diphthong / əʊ / alone, we stress the first syllable not the
second e.g narrow/………………./. But, if it contains / əʊ / + consonant, we stress the second syllable
not the first e.g alone/………./.

4)Adverbs : They are usullay stressed on the second syllable e.g above/…………./

a-In two syllable adverbs and prepositions, we stress the second syllable if it contains :

*A long vowel e.g abroad/………………/

*A diphthong e.g aloud/……………………../

*A vowel + more than one consonant

b-We stress the first syllable if the second syllable contains :

*A short vowel + one final consonant e.g often/…………../

*A short vowel alone e.g easy/…………………/

III)Trisyllabic words :

1)Verbs : There are two major rules.

a-We stress the first syllable if the third syllable contains : fy , ise , ate,ize

simplify/…………………../ improvise/………………………/ indicate/……………………………./

organize/……………………../

b-W stress the second syllable if the third syllable contains :

*a short vowel alone. Deliver/……………………/

*a vowel + only one consonant. Develop/………………………/

c-We stress the third syllable if it contains :

*a diphthong. Undermine/………………………./

*a long vowel. Intervene/……………………./

*a vowel + more than one consonant. Resurrect/…………………………/

2)Nouns and adjectives :

a- if the final syllable contains a short vowel or a diphthong /əʊ/ we stress the second syllable. E.g
tomato/………………./

*if the second syllable contains s a long vowel or a diphthong, we stress the second syllable.

E.g potato/……………………../
b-if the final syllable contains a short vowel and the second syllable contains a short vowel, we stress
the first syllable.

e.g quantity/…………….../

IV)Stress in complex words :

Complex words represent two types : stem + affixes and compound words

1)Stress placement on prefixes :

*Neutral prefixes : Usually most prefixes are neutral and do not affect stress, so stress falls on one of
the stem syllable.

Ab : abnormal/……………………………/

De : demotivate/………………………/

Dis : dislike/……………/

Im : impossible/……………………../

Re : resource/…………………………/

Un : unhappy/……………………/

Exceptions : There are some exceptions in which the prefix affects the stress.

e.g impulse/………………………./

infinite/………………./

impudent/………………./

2)Stress placement on suffixes : There are three major effects that suffixes can have on stress
position in complex words.

a-Suffixes can be neutral : Stress doesn’t change its position when those suffixes are added to the
word.

e.g. able : comfortable/…………………./

age : marriage/……………………../

al : arrival/……………………../

ment : development/…………………………./

some : quarrelsome/………………………/

ful : sorrowful/…………………………../

ing : educating/…………………………/
 ist : journalist/………………………………../

less : defenseless/……………………………./

ly : rapidly/…………………………………../

ness : greatness/……………………………../

ous : dangerous/………………………………../

y : funny/………………./

b-They can affect primary stress : the suffix itself is stressed.e.g

ee : referee/……………./

eer : pioneer/……………………./

ese : japenese/…………………./

c-Stress shifting suffixes : When they are added to a word , they can cause a change of the primary
stress from one syllable to another on the stem. It moves either to penultimate or antepenultimate
syllable.

*Suffixes causing penultimate stress :

Words ending in : ic, ics, sion, tion, , ial, cian, ence, ious, ive…….are stressed on the penultimate
syllable.e.g

Economic/…………………../, revision/…………………./, relation/……………………./, financial/……………./,

politician/…………………../, experience/………………../, ambitious/……………………/
collective/…………………………./

Exception :

Arabic/……………………../ heretic/……………./

*Suffixes causing antepenultimate stress :

Words ending cy, phy, gy, al,meter, er, ity, ible, able, ist, ful, less, fy, ness, ize………… are stressed on
the ante penultimate syllable.e.g

political/……………../, democracy/……………./,

barometer/………………/, possible/…………………./ credibility/…………………../

* verbs of three or more syllables ending in suffixes : ate, ise, fy, take stress on the antepenultimate
syllable. E.g investigate/…………………………./ identify/………………………../

V)Compund words :

1)Cases of stressing the first part of compunds :

*Compound words consist of two nouns (noun + noun) or gerund + noun. E.g

Credit card - deadline – washing machine.

Exception : head master – weekend –

2)Cases of stressing the second part of compound :

A) compound words which consist of adjective + past participle

e.g well painted – open minded

B) compound words which consist of adjective + gerund

e.g easy going – good looking

C) compound words which consist past participle + noun e.g lost property

D) compound words that function as a verb( verb + preposition) e.g turn off

E) Reflexive pronouns : e.g ourselves

F) Number + a word : e.g second class

Rules of Secondary stress

There are two major rules which help us to determine the right position of secondary stress in
polysyllabic words.

1)Automatic secondary stress : When there are only two syllables before the primary stress , we find
the secondary stress automatically (systematically), the secondary stress falls on the first syllable of
the word. E.g phonological/………………………/

2)Derivational secondary stress : When there are three or more syllables before the primary stress in
polysyllabic words, the secondary stress placement can not be automatic. We should find the root of
the verb and the primary syllable carrying in that root. This syllable’s primary stress turns into
secondary stress in the newly derived word. E.g

Participation/………………………….. /

Participate/………………………./

**Steps of derivational rule :

1-Find the most original root of the polysyllabic word.

2-Determine the primary stress in the root.

3-Turn the primary stress in the root into a secondary stress in the newly derived word. E.g

Verification/………………………../ Verify/………………………/
 Exercise 1: Put the stress mark on the following words; Attempt to put the secondary
stress if possible.

1.shop-lifter - birth-mark - eight-sided - roof-timber - open-ended – – fruit – cake –

Javanese – Confirmation – defective - working-class - production

Exercise 2: Find out the place of the primary stress in the following words. Refer to the
rules so far
studied – father – advice –alone –confidence –collection – relatively – original – colour –
excuse – refusal – weather – encourage – task based – calamity – left shooted
Exercise3: Put the stress mark according to the word

class

1.import(v) - 2.perfect(a) - 3.permit (v)

4.produce(v) - 5. protest(v)

Exercise4:identify the stressed syllable in the bold faced words.

*Can you pass me a plastic knife?

*I want to to take a photography class.
*Please, turn off the television before you go out.
*I can’t decide which book to borrow.
*There is a lot of traffic on the highway today.
*She is happy today.
 Aspects of Connected speech in English language
when we speak naturally, we don’t pronounce a word , stop, then say the next word in a
sentence (separately). Fluent speech flows with a rhythm and the words bump into each other.
To make speech flow smoothy, the way we pronounce the end and beginning of some words
can change depending on the sounds at the beginning and end of those words. These changes
are described as features of connected speech. They are: linking, elision, assimilation,
juncture…….
I)Linking: when we join words together (sounds), the final sound in a word with the initial
sound in the next word, to make our speech sound natural, fluid, and fluent.
Rules of linking:
1)Linking final consonant to initial vowel:
Can I help /………………………………………………/
Turn off/……………………………………………………../
2)Intrusive /j/: when a word ending / / is followed by a word
which starts with a vowel .
Day in /…………………………../
My aunt /…………………………/
3)Intrusive /w/: when a word ending in / /is followed by a word
beginning with a vowel.
Go in/…………………………………./
Two others/……………………/
4)Linking /r/:
Door/……………./
Far/………………/
Sure enough/……………………../
Care of/…………………………../
II)Elision: also called deletion. It is the omission of one or more sounds ( vowels, consonants,
syllables) in rapid speech in a word or phrase. We use Elision because it makes our speech
faster, easier, and more natural.
Rules of Elision:
1)Elision of vowels: It refers mainly to elision that happens when a short unstressed
vowel / / occurs between voiceless consonants. E.g
Potato/……………………/
Bicycle/…………………../
*The deletion of the weak vowel / / after /p – t – k/
e.g tomato/…………./
*The deletion of the weak vowel / / before /n – l – r /
e.g tonight/…………../
police/……………../

*The deletion of initial / / followed by a continuant and preceded by a word’s final

 consonant. E.g get another/…………………/
Run away/…………………./
*When an appropriate vowel precedes a word initial / /, this schwa may coalesce
(join) with this preceding vowel.
e.g go away /………………………./
try again/……………………../
*When a final final / / + a linking /r/ are followed by a word’s initial / /, the final / /
before /r/ can be deleted. E.g over and above/………………………………./
2)Elision of consonant: It concerns mainly the alveolar consonants /t/ and /d/ which are
omitted.
1) The deletion of /t/ and /d/ within a consonant cluster when followed by an initial consonant
e.g next day/……………………../ the last car/…………………./
2) The final /t/ and /d/ when followed by an initial /j/in the newt word, ther are kept in
coalesced form / /
Eg helped you/……………………………………………/
Told you/……………………./
3) The /t/ of negative form is omitted it is followed by a consonant
e.g Ican’t speak/……………………………./
4) The deletion of /h/ (pronouns and auxiliaries) when it is in the middle or final position, but
we keep it in initial position.
e.g He passed his exam/………………………………………………../
5) The sound /v/ can disappear in “of” when it is followed by a consonant.
e.g of November/……………………/
waste of time/……………………………/
III)Assimilation: It is an aspect of connected speech when a phoneme (consonant) is
influenced by a neighbouring sound until the two sounds become similar.
Types of assimilation:
1)Regressive assimilation: The phoneme that comes first is affected by the one that comes
after it.
Cases of regressive assimilation:
*The alveolar /t/ changes to the sound /p/(bilabial) when it is followed and influenced by the
bilabial consonants /p – b – m/
e.g that boy
mixed marriage
put back
*The alveolar /t/ changes to the velar sound /k/ when it is followed and influenced by the
velar sounds /k – g/
e.g that girl
short cut
*The alveolar /d/ changes to the bilabial sound /d/ when it is followed and influenced by /p –
b – m/.
e.g red bag
bad pain
*The alveolar /d/ changes to the velar sound /g/ when it is followed and influenced by the
velar sounds /k/ or /g/.
e.g cold cream
*The alveolar nasal /n/ changes to the sound / / when it is followed and influenced by the
velar sounds /k/ or /g/
e.g golden gate
*The sound /s/ changes to the sound / / when it is followed and influenced by the sound /
/or / /+ rounded vowel / / or / /
e.g dress shop
this year
*The sound /z/ changes to the sound / /when it is followed by the sound / /or / /,+ a
rounded vowel / /
e.g these sheep
as you like
*The sound / / changes to the sound /s/ when it is followed and influenced by /s/
e.g both side
2)Progressive assimilation: The phoneme that comes first affects the one that comes after it.
Cases of progressive assimilation:
1)The case of final /s/:
*The final /s/ is pronounced /s/ when it is preceded and influenced by voiceless consonants / p
–t–k–f- /
e.g Books /s/
*The final /s/ is pronounced /z/ when it is preceded by voiced consonants /b – d – g – v – n –
m – l – w – j – r - - - / and also vowels.
e.g beds /z/
*The final /s/ is pronounced /iz/ when it is preceded by / s – z -
e.g garages /iz/
2)The case of final /ed/:
*The final /ed/ is pronounced /t/ when it is preceded and influenced by the voiveless
consonants /p – k – f – s –
e.g
missed /t/
*The final /ed/ is pronounced /d/ when it is preceded and influenced by the consonants / b – g
–v–z–m–n–l–r–j–w- /and all vowels
e.g cleaned /d/
*The final /ed/ is pronounced /id/ when it is preceded by the the consonants /t – d/
e.g started /id/
3)The possessive /s/: It takes the voice quality of the preceding sound.
e.g Jach’s house
Jones’s house
4)The third position reduced form of “to be”:
e.g He’s
It’s
IV)
 Introduction to Intonation

Definition:
Intonation refers to the variations ( rising and falling) which take place in the pitch of the
voice in connected speech ( Jones,1960). It is used by native speakers because it influences
the meaning of our speech (words and sectences). It gives information beyond the basic
meaning of the words.

Cases of intonation:
I)Falling intonation: when the pitch of the voice usually falls at the end of a sentence.
1-Statements:
e.g He wants to change his car.
2-Commands:
e.g Write your name!
3-Wh questions:
e.g Where do you live?
4-Exclamations:
e.g What a beautiful voice!
5-Interjection:
e.g Oh, good!
6-Greeting:
e.g Nice to meet you
7-Tag questions:
e.g You live in London, don’t you?
II)Rising intonation: the pitch of the voice rises at the end of a sentence.
1-Yes No questions:
e.g Do you like tea?
2-Polite requests:
e.g Will you open the door , please?
3-Encouragement:
e.g Carry on!
III)Fall-rise intonation: it falls then iot rises. The pitch of the voice starts a bit high then it
moves downwards then it moves upwards again usually within one word.
1-Doubt (uncertainty) of an answer:
e.g Perhaps we could visit Spain.
2-Reluctance:
e.g A: Didn’t you see him on Monday?
B: I don’t quite remember.
3-Negative orders:
e.g Don’t start until you are ready!
IV)Rise-fall intonation: the pitch of the voice starts relatively low, moves upwards, and then
downwards again.
1-Alternative questions:
e.g Will you have soup or salad?
2-Listing: We use rising intonation with all elements and falling with the last element.
e.g I visited London, Paris, Spain, and UK.
3-Conditional sentences:
e.g If you mix red and yellow, you get orange.