Applied Physics for EEE streams (2022 scheme)

Module 4

Maxwell equations and Electromagnetic waves

FUNDAMENTALS OF VECTOR CALCULUS

Scalar is any physical quantity having only magnitude.

Examples: Time, temperature, Speed, energy, work done, voltage, charge, power, volume, etc.
Vector is a quantity having both magnitude and direction. Displacement, velocity, acceleration,
force, electric field intensity, momentum, torque, etc are vectors. A vector is represented by as
follows

𝑅⃗ = │𝐑│𝑎

Where, │𝐑│ is the magnitude and 𝑎 is its direction

Vector multiplication:
A vector can be multiplied by another vector in two different ways namely
(i) Scalar product (dot product) (ii) Vector product (cross product).
Scalar Product (dot product):
Scalar product or dot product of two vectors is defined as the product of their magnitudes and cosine
of the angle between them. Scalar product of two vectors results in a number (a scalar)
If 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵⃗ are two non-zero vectors acting at point at an angle  then

𝐴⃗. 𝐵⃗ = │𝐀││𝐁│𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛉

Example: Work done (W) by the applied force on a rigid body and is given by the scalar product of
force (F) and displacement (S), 𝐹⃗ . 𝑆⃗ = │𝐅││𝐒│𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛉.

In scalar product we have, 𝚤̂. 𝚤̂ = 𝚥̂. 𝚥̂ = 𝑘 . 𝑘 = 1 and 𝚤̂. 𝚥̂ = 𝚥̂. 𝑘 = 𝑘 . 𝚤̂ = 0

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Vector product:

Vector product or cross product of two vectors is defined as the product of their magnitudes and sine
of the angle between them. The vector product of two vectors always gives a vector quantity.
If 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵⃗ are two non-zero vectors acting at point at an angle  then

𝐴⃗𝑋𝐵⃗ = │𝐀││𝐁│𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛉.

Example: Torque () acting on a dipole placed in the electric field is given by the cross product of
field intensity (E) and dipole moment (p), 𝜏⃗𝑋𝑝⃗ = │𝜏││𝐩│𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛉.

In vector product we have, 𝚤̂𝑋𝚤̂ = 𝚥̂𝑋𝚥̂ = 𝑘 𝑋𝑘 = 0 and 𝚤̂𝑋𝚥̂ = 𝑘 , 𝚥̂𝑋𝑘 = 𝚤̂ , 𝑘 𝑋𝚤̂ = 𝚥̂

Scalar and Vector fields:

A point in space is described by three independent parameters. A continuous function of the

position of a point in space is known as point function. The region of space in which the point
function specifies a physical quantity is known as field. The point function may have only magnitude
or both magnitude and direction. Based on the nature of the point function, field is classified as
Scalar field and Vector field.

Scalar field: Scalar field is a region of space where each point is associated with scalar point
function i.e., it has only magnitude and does not depend on how the coordinates are chosen.

Ex: density of gas, temperature and pressure of air, Electrostatic potential.

Scalar fields are represented by drawing surfaces. Electrostatic potential is a scalar field represented
by equipotential surface. It passes through all the points at same electric potential around a charged
body.

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Vector field: Vector field is a region of space where each point is associated with vector point
function i,e, it has magnitude and direction. It is represented as v(x).

velocity vector of water flow, velocity vector of a rotating body, force acting on a test charge in the
electric field, intensity of magnetic field around a bar magnet, etc are the examples for vector field.

Vector field is represented by vector lines, lines of surface. The tangent at a vector line gives the
direction of the vector at that point.

Circulation or rotation: For any vector field 𝐯⃗ the circulation around any imaginary closed curve is
defined as the line integral of the vector field around closed curve. This can be written
mathematically as (in general)

Circulation=∮ 𝐯⃗. 𝐝𝐥

Flux: For an arbitrary closed surface, the flux (either outward or inward) is the product of average
normal component of the vector 𝐯⃗ and surface area. The outward flux is positive and inward flux is
negative. This can be written mathematically as surface integral of vector field through the surface.

Flux=∯ 𝐯⃗. 𝐝𝐒⃗

Del operator: It is a vector operator which operates on both scalars and vector fields. It is
represented by 𝛻, which is expressed as,

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇= 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

where 𝚤̂. 𝚥̂. 𝑘 are the unit vectors.

Gradient of scalar field: Gradient at any point in the scalar field is equal to the rate of change of
scalar along the normal to the surface at that point.

If f(x,y,z) is scalar point function then gradient of scalar function is obtained by multiplying the 
by scalar function (∇f)

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
gradf = ∇f = 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘 𝑓 = 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

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Physical significance: Gradient of a scalar field is a vector whose magnitude at any point is equal
to the maximum rate of change of scalar function f(x,y,z) w.r.t space variables. Gradient of scalar
function may be positive or negative but not zero.

Divergence of a vector field: Divergence of a vector field is the amount of flux per unit volume
diverging from that point.

If f (x,y,z ) is a vector function ⃗f = 𝑓 𝚤̂ + 𝑓 𝚥̂ + 𝑓 𝑘, then its divergence is given by the dot product

of  and a vector function which is (∇. ⃗f)

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
divf = ∇. ⃗f = 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘 𝑓 𝚤̂ + 𝑓 𝚥̂ + 𝑓 𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
∇. ⃗f = + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

This is the expression of divergence.

In limiting case, divergence of flux per unit volume as dV tends to zero. Hence divergence of a
vector is also written as

∯ 𝒇⃗. 𝒅𝑺⃗ ∯ 𝒇⃗. 𝒅𝑺⃗

∇. ⃗f = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 =
𝒅𝑽→𝟎 𝒅𝑽 𝑽

∯ 𝒇⃗. 𝒅𝑺⃗
∇. ⃗f =
𝑽

Here, ∯ 𝒇⃗. 𝒅𝑺⃗ is net flux through the surface.

Example: If E is the vector field (electric field), dS is the area vector and V is the volume enclosed
by the surface then

∯ 𝑬⃗. 𝒅𝑺⃗
∇. E⃗ =
𝑽

Physical significance:

 Divergence of a vector represents rate of flow of vector filed at a point per unit volume. It is
always associated with flux.

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 If the net flow is outward then divergence is positive. If the net flow is inward then the
divergence is negative
 The point of positive divergence is “source” and the point of negative divergence is “sink”
 If the flow is steady (net inflow is equal to out flow) then divergence is ZERO, 𝛻. f = 0. In
such case the vector function is termed as incompressible or solenoidal.

Curl of a vector field: Curl of a vector field is defined as the rotation of a vector field in 3-D space.

If f(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is a vector function in 3-D space, then its curl is given by cross product of  and a vector
function. i.e ∇Xf⃗

𝚤̂ 𝚥̂ 𝑘
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝑓⃗ =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑓 𝑓 𝑓

𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝑓⃗ = 𝚤̂ − − 𝚥̂ − +𝑘 −

It is also defined as the maximum line integral of a vector per unit area as area tends to be zero.

∮ 𝑓⃗. 𝑑𝑙 ∮ 𝑓⃗. 𝑑𝑙
Curlf⃗ = ∇Xf⃗ = lim =
→ 𝑑𝑆 𝑆

∮ 𝑓⃗. 𝑑𝑙 is the rotation of the vector field.

Example: If B is the magnetic field produced by the current carrying conductor, then curl of B is

∮ 𝑩⃗. 𝒅𝒍
𝐂𝐮𝐫𝐥𝐁⃗ = ∇XB⃗ =
𝑺

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Physical Significance of curl.

 Curl of a vector represents the rotational effect of the vector field.

 If the curl is zero A vector field is said to be irrotational.

Types of Integrations Integration: Line integral, Surface integral & Volume integral

Line integral: A Line integral is an integration of a function along a curve. The function to be
integrated may be scalar valued functions (like mass of a wire) or vector valued functions (like work
done by a force) along a curve.

Example: In the following figure, work done by a force F in displacing an object along the path CD
is calculated using line integration as follows

𝑫
𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆 = 𝑭𝟏 𝒅𝒍𝟏 + 𝑭𝟐 𝒅𝒍𝟐 + ⋯ = 𝑭⃗𝒊 . 𝒅𝒍⃗𝒊
𝑪

Surface integral: The integration of a function over a surface is called surface integral. Consider a
surface area S in a vector field bounded by a curve as shown in figure. Let surface be divided into
infinitesimal element of the surface which is represented by area vector 𝒅𝑺⃗ .

Total flux over closed surface is

𝑭𝒍𝒖𝒙 = ∮𝑺 𝑽⃗𝒊 . 𝒅𝑺⃗𝒊

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Volume integral: Integration of a function over a volume is called volume integral.

Consider closed surface in space enclosing volume V, if A be the vector point function at a point in
volume element dV then integral ∮𝐕 𝐀 𝐝𝐕 is called volume integral of a vector over volume.

Ex: Consider a closed surface with charge density 𝜌. Let us consider a charge dq in a volume
element dv. Total Charge enclosed by the volume of surface is

𝐐 = ∮𝐕 𝛒 𝐝𝐯

GAUSS DIVERGENCE THEOREM: It helps to convert volume integral into surface integral.

Statement: “The surface integral of flux of a vector function (Say Electric field 𝐸⃗) over any closed
surface S is equal to volume integral of the divergence of the same field. The mathematical form of
divergence theorem is as follows

𝑬⃗. 𝒅𝑺⃗ = 𝜵. 𝑬⃗ 𝒅𝑽

Proof: Consider a charged body surrounded by imaginary boundary which is divided into different
segments. Assume electric field is constant and the total electric flux through these segments is

∮ 𝑬⃗. 𝒅𝑺⃗ .

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Let dS1, dS2, dS3, etc are the surface areas of the segments. The net flux is given by

𝑬⃗. 𝒅𝑺⃗ = 𝑬. 𝒅𝑺𝟏 + 𝑬. 𝒅𝑺𝟐 + ⋯

𝑬⃗. 𝒅𝑺⃗ = 𝑬⃗. 𝒅𝑺⃗

𝒊 𝟏

𝒏
∮ 𝑬⃗. 𝒅𝑺⃗
𝑬⃗. 𝒅𝑺⃗ = 𝑽
𝑽
𝒊 𝟏

By definition of divergence

∮ 𝑬⃗. 𝒅𝑺⃗
∇. E =
𝑽
From the above relations
𝒏

𝑬⃗. 𝒅𝑺⃗ = 𝑽 (∇. E)

𝒊 𝟏

In limiting case we can write

𝒏

𝑽= dV
𝒊 𝟏

𝑬⃗. 𝒅𝑺⃗ = 𝜵. 𝑬⃗ 𝒅𝑽

Stokes’ Theorem: This theorem helps us to convert line integral into surface integral.

Statement: The line integral (or circulation) of a vector field F around a closed curve is equal to the
surface integral of curl F over a surface bounded by the path. Mathematically

𝑭⃗. 𝒅𝒍⃗ = 𝜵𝑿 𝑭⃗ . 𝒅𝑺⃗

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Maxwell’s Equations:

Gauss's theorem in electrostatics (Maxwell's equation-I):

Statement:

“The total electric flux over a closed surface is equal to (1/0) times total charge q enclosed by the
surface”.

The surface integral of net flux is equal to (1/0) times the total charge q enclosed by the surface,
mathematically

𝟏
𝑬⃗. 𝒅𝒍⃗ = 𝒒
𝟎

𝑬⃗ is the electric flux, 𝟎 Permittivity in free space, q is the total charge and dl is the length of the
closed path.

Using divergence theorem we can reduce this equation to

𝜵. 𝑫⃗ = 𝝆

This is known as Maxwell’s 1st equation Here  is known as volume charge density and 𝐷⃗ = 𝜀0𝐸⃗
called displacement vector.

Gauss theorem in magnetism (Maxwell equation –II)

The net flux of the magnetic field through a closed surface is zero

𝑩⃗. 𝒅𝑺⃗ = 𝟎

Again using divergence theorem we can reduce this equation to

𝜵. 𝑩⃗ = 𝟎

This is known as Maxwell’s 2nd equation.

Law of Electromagnetic induction (Maxwell equation –III):

Maxwell’s 3rd equation is a direct consequence of laws of Electromagnetic induction.

Law of EMI states that An emf is induced in a coil due to continuous change in the magnetic flux
linked with the coil and magnitude of induced emf (e) is directly proportional to rate of change of
flux ()

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The induced emf ‘e’ is expressed as

𝜕𝜙
𝑒=−
𝜕𝑡

where φ is the flux linkage in the circuit which can be written as

𝜙 = 𝐵⃗. 𝑑𝑆⃗

𝑑𝜙 𝜕𝐵⃗
= . 𝑑𝑆⃗ − − − −1
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡

The induced emf in the loop is, 𝑒 = ∮ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙⃗ --------- ---------2

⃗
Equating the equations 1 and 2, ∮ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙⃗ = − ∯ . 𝑑𝑆⃗ − − − − − 3

Using Stokes theorem,

𝜕𝐵⃗
𝛻𝑋 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑆⃗ = − . 𝑑𝑆⃗
𝜕𝑡

𝝏𝑩⃗
𝜵𝑿 𝑬⃗ = −
𝝏𝒕

This is the Maxwell’s 3rd equation.

Ampere law (Maxwell equation –IV)

The line integral of the magnetic field around a closed path is equal to 0 times the current
enclosed by the path.

𝑩⃗. 𝒅𝒍⃗ = 𝜇 𝐼

Where, 𝐵⃗ is the magnetic flux density, 𝜇 Permeability in free space and I Current through the

conductor and dl is the length of closed path. Since 𝐵⃗ = 𝜇 𝐻⃗

𝐻⃗ . 𝑑𝑙⃗ = 𝐼

The total current in the circuit is

𝐼= 𝐽⃗. 𝑑𝑠⃗

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𝐻⃗ . 𝑑𝑙⃗ = 𝐽⃗. 𝑑𝑠⃗

Using stokes theorem

𝜵𝑿 𝑯⃗ = 𝐽⃗
This law holds good only for steady state and fails in the case of varying fields. Hence Maxwell
modified the Ampere’s law by introducing displacement current density.
𝝏𝑫⃗
𝜵𝑿 𝑯⃗ = 𝑱⃗ +
𝝏𝒕
This is the Maxwell’s 4th equation.

𝝏𝑫⃗
is called displacement current density.
𝝏𝒕

Equation of continuity:

Principle of conservation of charge can be expressed by the equation of continuity. It is stated as the
total current flowing out of some volume 0must be equal to the rate of decrease of charge within the
volume.

Consider a closed surface S enclosing volume V of electric charge distribution, 𝐽⃗ is the current
density through 𝑑𝑠⃗, Total current flowing through surface is

𝐼= 𝐽⃗. 𝑑𝑠⃗

Since charge is conserved, Current should decrease within the volume as

𝜕𝑞
𝐼=−
𝜕𝑡
∂
I=− ρdv
∂t

ρ is the charge density.

∂
𝐽⃗. 𝑑𝑠⃗ = − ρdv
∂t

Using divergence theorem,

𝜕𝜌
𝛻. 𝐽⃗ = −
𝜕𝑡

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This is called continuity equation.

Displacement Current ID and its expression.

Under time varying field conditions, the current flows between the plates of a capacitor is called
displacement current.
Consider a parallel plate capacitor connected across an AC source, let the area of each plate be A.

The electric field E between two plates of a capacitor is

𝜎
𝐸=
𝜀
Where, 𝜎 = is the surface charge density
𝑞
𝐸=
𝐴𝜀
𝑞 = 𝐸𝐴𝜀
The rate of flow charge is called current which is given by
𝜕𝑞 𝜕
𝐼= = (𝐸𝐴𝜀 )
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐸
𝐼 = 𝐴𝜀 − − − − − 1)
𝜕𝑡
𝐼 𝜕𝐸
=𝜀
𝐴 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐸
𝐽 =𝜀
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐷
𝐽 =
𝜕𝑡
The above relation is called displacement current density.
If d is the distance between the plates of the capacitor, V is the potential difference across capacitor
which is given by
V=v e
Then electric field is
𝑉 v ê
𝐸= =
𝑑 d
𝜕𝐸 v jωe ̂
=
𝜕𝑡 d
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𝜕𝐸 𝐴𝜀 v jωe ̂
𝐼 = 𝐴𝜀 =
𝜕𝑡 d
Aε v jωe ̂
I =
d
The above relation is called displacement current.

Difference between conduction current and displacement current

 Displacement current is due to time varying fields where as conduction current is due to
steady fields
 Displacement current does not require any material medium for the flow whereas conduction
current requires conducting wires for the flow
 Displacement current can exists even in free space (Vacuum) whereas conduction current do
not have this privilege
 Displacement current is basically rate of change of electric flux whereas conduction current
is the rate of flow of charge

BIOT-SAVART’S LAW: Magnetic field produced by a current element is given by Biot-Sovart law.

“The magnetic field dB produced at a point due to current carrying conductor is directly proportional
to the current I in a conductor, length of the conductor and sine of angle between the line joining the
point and direction of the current and inversely proportional to square of the distance.

𝑰𝒅𝒍 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
𝒅𝑩 ∝
𝒓𝟐

𝝁𝒐 𝑰𝒅𝒍 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
𝒅𝑩 =
𝟒𝝅 𝒓𝟐

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𝝁𝒐 𝑰 𝒅𝒍⃗ 𝑿 𝒂̂𝒓
The direction of magnetic field intensity dB in vector form, 𝒅𝑩 =
𝟒𝝅 𝒓𝟐

Maxwell’s equations in statement form

 𝜵. 𝑫⃗ = 𝝆 :- Divergence of electric flux density over a closed surface is equal to the volume
charge density enclosed by the surface.

 𝜵. 𝑩⃗ = 𝟎 :- Divergence of magnetic flux density over a closed surface is always zero.

𝛛𝐁 ⃗
 𝛁𝐗 𝐄⃗ = − :- Curl of the induced electric filed is equal to negative rate of change of
𝛛𝐭

magnetic flux density

𝛛𝐃 ⃗
 𝛁𝐗 𝐇⃗ = 𝐉⃗ + : - The curl of magnetic field induced is equal to current density.
𝛛𝐭

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES:

Introduction: When electric field E and magnetic field H vary in two mutually perpendicular planes then the
net energy propagates in the form of a wave in a direction perpendicular to both E & H. This wave is known
as uniform plane EMwave.

Electromagnetic wave equation in terms of electric field in free space.

Consider Maxwell’s equation-III

𝜕𝐵⃗
𝛻𝑋 𝐸⃗ = −
𝜕𝑡

𝜕𝐻⃗
𝛻𝑋 𝐸⃗ = −𝜇
𝜕𝑡

Taking curl for both sides of equation

𝜕
𝛻𝑋𝛻𝑋 𝐸⃗ = −𝜇 𝛻𝑋𝐻⃗ − − − − − 1)
𝜕𝑡

From Maxwell equation-4, we have

𝜕𝐷⃗
𝛻𝑋 𝐻⃗ = 𝐽⃗ +
𝜕𝑡
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𝜕 E⃗
𝛻𝑋 𝐻⃗ = 𝐽⃗ + Ԑ − − − − − 2)
𝜕𝑡

Substitute equation 2 in equation 1

𝜕 𝜕 E⃗
𝛻𝑋𝛻𝑋 𝐸⃗ = −𝜇 𝐽⃗ + Ԑ
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡

𝜕𝐽⃗ 𝜕 𝜕 E⃗
𝛻𝑋𝛻𝑋 𝐸⃗ = −𝜇 −𝜇 Ԑ
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡

𝜕𝐽⃗ 𝜕 𝐸⃗
𝛻𝑋𝛻𝑋 𝐸⃗ = −𝜇 −𝜇 Ԑ
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡

As per vector analysis, 𝛻𝑋𝛻𝑋 𝐸⃗ = 𝛻. 𝛻. 𝐸⃗ − 𝛻 𝐸

𝜕𝐽⃗ 𝜕 𝐸⃗
𝛻. 𝛻. 𝐸⃗ − 𝛻 𝐸 = −𝜇 −𝜇 Ԑ
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡

Since 𝛻. 𝐸⃗ = Ԑ
0

𝜌 𝜕𝐽⃗ 𝜕 𝐸⃗
𝛻. − 𝛻 𝐸 = −𝜇 −𝜇 Ԑ
Ԑ 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡

In free space, J=0 and =0. Hence

𝜕 𝐸⃗
−𝛻 𝐸 = −𝜇 Ԑ
𝜕𝑡

𝜕 𝐸⃗
𝛻 𝐸=𝜇 Ԑ
𝜕𝑡

𝜕 𝐸⃗
𝛻 𝐸−𝜇 Ԑ − − − −3
𝜕𝑡
Consider wave equation travel with velocity v is

1 ∂ f⃗
∇ f− =0−−−−−4
v ∂t
On comparing the above equations

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𝟏
𝐯=
𝝁𝟎 Ԑ𝟎

TRANSVERSE NATURE OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES:

Consider a uniform plane wave propagating along Z direction in a medium (free space)

An EM wave propagates along z- axis in homogeneous medium along with E parallel to y- axis and
B along x- axis. Both E and B shall vary along z-axis. Their instantaneous values are given by

𝑬⃗(𝒛, 𝒕) = 𝑬𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏 [(𝒌𝒛 − 𝝎𝒕)] ̂

𝑩⃗(𝒛, 𝒕) = 𝑩𝟎 𝒔𝒊𝒏 [(𝒌𝒛 − 𝝎𝒕)]𝒌

Here K = wave number;  = angular frequency. At every instant, the velocity of propagation of E and H is
𝟏
𝐯=
𝝁𝟎 Ԑ 𝟎

Properties

 EM waves consist of vibrating electric and magnetic fields. Hence they are transverse.
 They travel with a speed of 3  108m/s in free space or vacuum
 They transmit energy through matter or across space.
 They undergo reflection, refraction, diffraction, polarization

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POLARIZATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE:

There are three different polarization namely, linearly polarized, circularly polarized, and elliptically
polarized wave. Let us consider EM wave propagating along Z direction and electric field vibrates in
a direction perpendicular to the direction of propagation. This direction of oscillation of the electric
field is polarization of EM wave. Let electric field inclined at an angle θ to x-axis. Then, the electric
field can have Ex and Ey components. Let E1 and E2 are amplitudes and δ is the phase difference.

Linear polarization: When the orientation of the E-field vector does not change, then the wave is
linearly polarized. The electric components are identical in phase but their amplitude may be equal
or unequal. The resultant E vector traces straight line. For linearly polarized, δ=0, and ratio
= constant. Hence it is called linear polarization.

Circular polarization:
If two linearly polarized waves of equal amplitude of E vector having a phase difference of /2; one
polarized in the y -direction, and one in the x-direction. The resultant E vector traces out a circle in
the plane perpendicular to direction of propagation. Hence the name is circular polarization. For
circular polarization, E1=E2 and phase difference δ=π/2.
Elliptical polarization:
If two linearly polarized waves of unequal amplitude of E vector having a phase difference of /2;
one polarized in the y -direction, and one in the x-direction. The resultant E vector traces out an
elliptical in the plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation. For elliptical polarization, E 1# E2
and phase difference δ # 0.

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Questions for exercise

 Discuss scalar product and vector product along with examples

 Define gradient of a scalar field. Give example. Write a note on its physical significance
 What is divergence? Give examples and expression for the same. Discuss its physical
significance.
 What is curl? Give examples and expression for the same. Discuss its physical significance.
 Explain the transverse nature of electromagnetic waves.
 Explain the polarization of electromagnetic waves.
 Explain the features of line, surface and volume integrations.
 Explain the Gauss law in electrostatics and magnetism. Express the same in differential form.
 Derive Gauss divergence theorem and mention stokes theorem.
 Explain Amperes law and Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. Express the same in
point form.
 Discuss the continuity equation.
 Define displacement current and obtain an expression for it. Mention the difference between
conduction current and displacement current.
 Derive the wave equation for electromagnetic waves using Maxwell equations.
 Write all four Maxwell equations in free space.

Problems:

1. Find the divergence of the vector field 𝐴⃗ = 6𝑥 𝑎̂ + 3𝑥𝑦 𝑎̂ + 𝑥𝑦𝑧 𝑎̂ at a point

(1,3,6).
2. Prove that 3y4 z2 âx +4x3 z2 ây +3x2 y2 âz is Solenoidal.
3. Find the constant C such that 𝐴⃗ = (𝑥 + 𝑎𝑦)𝚤̂ + (𝑦 + 𝑏𝑧)𝚥̂ + (𝑥 + 𝑐𝑧)𝑘 is solenoidal.
4. Calculate curl of 𝐴⃗ = (1 + 𝑦𝑧 )𝑎̂ + 𝑥𝑦 𝑎̂ + 𝑥 𝑦𝑎̂

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