Hindawi

International Journal of Analytical Chemistry

Volume 2023, Article ID 8880601, 15 pages
https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/8880601

Research Article
Assessment of Drinking Water Quality in Urban Water Supply
Systems: The Case of Hawassa City, Ethiopia

Yirged Antehun Mengstie ,1,2 Wendesen Mekonin Desta ,3 and Esayas Alemayehu 3,4

1
Institute of Technology Faculty of Biosystem and Water Resource Engineering,
Department of Water Supply and Environmental Engineering, Hawassa University, Hawassa, Ethiopia
2
Institute of Water and Energy Science (Including Climate Change), Pan African University, Tlemcen, Algeria
3
Jimma Institute of Technology, Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
Department of Water Supply and Environmental Engineering, Jimma University, Jimma, Ethiopia
4
Africa Center of Excellence for Water Management, Addis Ababa University, P.O. Box-1176, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Correspondence should be addressed to Wendesen Mekonin Desta; [email protected]

Received 9 December 2022; Revised 1 August 2023; Accepted 3 August 2023; Published 14 August 2023

Academic Editor: Charles Wilkins

Copyright © 2023 Yirged Antehun Mengstie et al. Tis is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons
Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is
properly cited.
In many developing countries, such as Ethiopia, water quality and the risk of water-related diseases are serious public health issues.
Te present study goal was to assess the drinking water quality from source to household tap water. To characterize and analyze
drinking water quality parameters, 21 water samples were collected, of which 11 water samples were collected from sources
(spring, borehole, and river), 4 from service reservoirs, and 6 from tap water. Te mean values of the parameters were as follows:
total dissolved solids (TDS) (142.79 mg/L), temperature (22.08°C), turbidity (9.49 NTU), electrical conductivity (EC) (250.14°μS/
cm), pH (7.45 mg/L), fuoride (1.15 mg/L), nitrate (NO3−) (2.91 mg/L), total hardness (TH) (57.45 mg/L), calcium (41.7 6 mg/l),
magnesium (10.74 mg/L), phosphate (0.44 mg/L), sulfate (3.99 mg/L), residual chlorine (1.53 mg/L), alkalinity (196.39 mg/L), and
microbiological (total coliform and coliform/CFU) which were the main physiochemical parameters analyzed for the study. Te
fndings revealed that the majority of the water quality parameters tested were within the WHO and National Drinking Water
Quality Standards (NDWQS). However, some of the parameters such as temperature, turbidity, fuoride, and residual chlorine did
not meet the standards. Te mean temperatures at the source, reservoir, and tap water were 22.01°C 22.5°C,and 21.83°C, re-
spectively. Turbidity levels in source samples ranged from 10 to 45 NTU, with a mean of 24.5 NTU, exceeding the WHO’s
recommendation of less than 5 NTU. Te Boko Alamura well had a high fuoride content (3.9 mg/l), which was above the WHO
and NDWQS permissible limits. Tere was no free residual chlorine in the tap water sample. Te results show that the Hawassa
drinking water supply did not contain total or fecal coliform in any of the samples tested. Te overall WQI for the water source,
reservoir, and tap water was also determined to be 89, 71, and 69.7 points, respectively. Terefore, based on the WQI result,
Hawassa drinking water quality is good for the source, reservoir, and tap water.

1. Introduction proper operation is directly related to the well-being of the

population [6, 7]. In spite of such importance, water crises
Water is a natural resource that is critical to human survival and quality are major concerns in many countries, partic-
[1–3]. It sustains all forms of life and generates jobs and ularly in arid and semiarid regions where water scarcity is
wealth in the water, tourism, and recreation industries. Te common, and water quality assessment has received little
global slogan “Water is Life” implies that water is one of the attention [8–10]. Water quality is constantly under attack
most basic human needs. Life as we know it on our planet because it is essential to the human body and ecosystem.
would be impossible without water [4, 5]. Water distribution Globally, the growing human population has a negative
networks are critical in modern communities because their impact on surface waters and watersheds. As the demand for
2 International Journal of Analytical Chemistry

freshwater rises with the growth of the human population, So far, no research activity has been conducted on the
the degradation of the water quality in aquatic ecosystems city’s drinking water quality that may enable us to know the
has become a global concern [11]. Although urbanization is quality of drinking water; however, it has been observed that
a global phenomenon with far-reaching consequences for some people in the study area did not drink tap water and
natural ecosystems, the ecosystem’s primary constituent is complained that the water has a salty taste. Tey generally
water, a valuable natural resource and national asset. Water distrust the quality of tap water and prefer to drink bottled
sources include rivers, lakes, glaciers, rainwater, ground- water. Te main objectives of this study are to investigate the
water, and so on. Water resources are important in many drinking water quality in Hawassa City utilizing on-site and
sectors of the economy, including agriculture, livestock laboratory experiments and to assess the fndings by con-
production, forestry, industrial activities, hydropower gen- trasting and comparing them to prior studies, national and
eration, fsheries, and other creative activities [12]. In order international standards, and guidelines. Based on the
to achieve the desired goal, it is crucial to use a variety of aforementioned study goals, it not only assesses the safety of
physical, chemical, and biological variables for diferent the source, reservoir, and tap water for consumption but also
purposes (drinking, industrial, agricultural, recreational, ofers a foundation for their management strategy
and habitat). [13, 14]. Groundwater is a critical component toward them.
of human development because it is the primary source of
drinking water in many countries around the world [15–17]. 2. Research Methodology
Te insufciency in surface water resources makes the
people dependent on groundwater for the regular water 2.1. Description of the Study Area. Tis study was carried out
supply [18]. Monitoring water quality is an essential tool in in Hawassa, a city in Ethiopia’s Sidama regional state. Te
the management of freshwater resources. Te International city is situated between 7°3′1.3464″N latitude and
Organization for Standardization (ISO) defnes monitoring 38°29′43.8144″E longitude, at a height of 1708 meters above
as “the programmed process of sampling, measurement, and sea level. Addis Ababa is located 273 kilometers to the south
subsequent recording or signaling, or both, of various water of the city. Te city is the capital of the Southern Nations,
characteristics, frequently with the goal of assessing con- Nationalities, and Peoples’ Region, as well as a special zone.
formity to specifed objectives.” Te most popular defnition Figure 1 depicts the location of the study area.
of water quality is “it is the physical, chemical, and biological
characteristics of water” [19]. It was prudent to conduct
2.2. Climate and Hydrology. Hawassa town has a hot tem-
research on the city’s water supply system in order to de-
perature, fuctuating between 10°C in winter and 30°C in
termine the quality of drinking water.
summer. Te town average annual rainfall is 956 mm. Te
Several major issues afecting human survival on Earth
average maximum rainfall during the rainy season is about
are caused by a lack of clean water for a large number of
126 mm in September. Te number of sunny hours in a day
communities, as well as environmental aesthetics [20, 21].
ranges from 4 hours in the rainy season to 9 hours in the dry
In many developing countries, such as Ethiopia, water
season. Relative humidity varies from 40% to 90% during the
quality and the risk of water-related diseases are serious
year. Te average wind speed recorded ranges from 0.6 m/s
public health issues. It can be directly or indirectly linked
to 1.1 m/s. According to the National Weather Service, the
to public health due to the low or high concentrations of
estimated annual PET intake for the Hawassa station is about
numerous contaminants in drinking water [22–24]. Ac-
1599 mm, with a minimum of 102 mm in July and a maxi-
cess to improved water supply and sanitation has been
mum of 173 mm in December.
very low, and hence, the majority of communicable dis-
eases are associated with unsafe and inadequate water
supply [25]. In Ethiopia, the safety of potable water and 2.3. Geology and Hydrogeology. Te Hawassa Basin is
the risk of waterborne diseases are major public health a volcanic tectonic collapse located in the central part of
concerns. A communicable disease associated with unsafe Ethiopia’s main Rift Valley. Tere are several rift system
and inadequate water and poor human excreta disposal faults that tend to the north and northeast along Lake
accounts for approximately 60% of the health problem Hawassa. Tese errors are extensive and often constitute step
[26]. Waterborne diseases, particularly diarrhea, co- errors. Tey mainly dominate the south and southwest of the
liforms, and E. coli microorganisms, were prevalent in lake. Te collapsing structure of the volcano forms an almost
SNNP. Tis is because there was insufcient investigation circular pattern around the Hawassa Lake Basin. Tis col-
and subsequent control of water quality parameters. lapse intersects several Main Ethiopian Rift (MER) fault
Water-related diseases are frequently reported as being systems, suggesting that the collapse occurs after the fault.
among the top ten diseases in the region’s health sector, Lake Hawassa covers an area of 100 square kilometers,
and there are several signs that the region’s population is while Cheleleka Wetland covers an area of 12 square kilo-
sufering from water-related diseases, most likely as meters. Recent lake and alluvial deposits, coal cones, rhyolite
a result of poor drinking water quality [27, 28]. Con- lava fows, and related igneous rocks, tufs, and volcanic ash
tamination can signifcantly change the chemical prop- form this basin. Rhyolitic lava fows and related igneous and
erties of water, compromising the overall balance of the ash rocks belong to recent rhyolite volcanic centers and coal
system, causing economic losses, and making its con- cones to basalt of recent highlands. Te clifs and mountains
sumption impractical [29–31]. at the eastern edge of the Hawassa Lake Basin comprise the
International Journal of Analytical Chemistry 3

Figure 1: Map of the study area.

Nazareth Series, consisting of ignimbrite, unwanted tuf, ash sample was collected in three phases. In the frst phase (10/
stream, rhyolitic stream, dome, and trachyte. Te northern, 12/2013 E. C to 18/12/2013 E. C), 11 water samples were
southwestern, and western margins include the Dino For- collected from sources. In the second phase (18-19/12/2013
mation, which is characterized by lava rock overlaid by E. C), the samples were collected from the reservoir.
coarse pumice of tuf ignimbrite with a rare alternation of In the third phase, the samples were collected from the
lake sediments. Te Hawassa Basin strata are based on the water tap in 29/12/2013 E. C. Precautions were taken for
Dino Formation, also known as the Nazareth Series. sampling. Contaminant-free containers were used, devices
or instruments used for sampling were calibrated, and the
time and the type of samples were leveled. Te location of the
2.4. Data Collection Process. Personal observation and feld sampling points is shown in Figure 2.
measurement were used to collect data. Tis was accom-
plished by employing the primary data collection method to
obtain the information required to meet the objective. On 2.6. Water Quality Parameter Analysis and Instruments.
both primary and secondary data, qualitative and quanti- Water samples were collected from Hawassa’s drinking water
tative analyses were performed. Tables, maps, and/or phrases supply system’s 21 drinking water supply stations. Four water
were used to evaluate the data qualitatively. In contrast, samples were taken from service reservoirs, and three kebeles
quantitative data were analyzed in Excel. (small administrative) of water taps were also used to obtain
six samples. Taps were turned on or left running for at least
a few minutes prior to sampling to ensure a representative
2.5. Sampling Methods. Samples were collected from raw sample (temperature and electrical conductivity were mon-
water source locations such as reservoirs and water taps itored to verify this). Te other 11 samples were collected
where customers receive water. Te tap water sample was from the source water. Various physicochemical parameters
collected twice, from two diferent kebeles (it is collected (electrical conductivity, TDS, pH, and temperature) of the
randomly from ketena one and two of the kebele). Te total water samples were measured in the feld using portable
4 International Journal of Analytical Chemistry

Figure 2: Sample coordinates for source.

meters at the time of sampling. Water samples were taken in location. Te remaining indicators of water quality were
clean containers provided by the laboratory. measured in accordance with the standards. Te equipment
was thoroughly cleaned and disinfected before each use to
prevent secondary contamination and ensure accurate
2.7. Physicochemical Test Procedures. Sensitive water quality results.
parameters such as temperature, pH, EC, and TDS were
determined using on-site measurements. A thermometer
and a portable digital pH meter were used to measure 2.8. Bacteriological Parameter Analysis. To avoid the growth
temperature and pH. Te pH meter was calibrated with or death of microorganisms in the sample, bacteriological
pH 4.0 and pH 7.0 before being used for the analysis, and it tests were done on the same day the sample was collected.
was washed with distilled water between samples as directed Using the membrane fltration method, a 100 ml water
in the pH meter operation guide. A portable digital con- sample was sucked through a flter with a little hand pump.
ductivity meter was used to measure electrical conductivity After fltration, the bacteria on the flter paper were placed in
and total dissolved solids (TDS). Teir measurements were a Petri dish with a nutritive solution (also known as culture
taken immediately after the samples were collected at each media, broth, or agar). Te temperature and period of
International Journal of Analytical Chemistry 5

incubation difered based on the type of indicator bacteria 3.1.1. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS). TDS in drinking water
and culture media applied (for example, total coliforms were has no health-based limit. As a result, TDS occurs in
incubated at 35°C and fecal coliforms were cultured at 44.5°C drinking water at concentrations far below those that are
with some types of culture media). harmful. Water with TDS levels less than 100 mg/L, on the
other hand, is considered to be good in terms of palatability
[36]. Figure 3 shows that the mean concentration of TDS in
2.9. Calculation of Water Quality Index (WQI). Te water water samples in the study area ranged from 67.3 to
quality index (WQI) is a straightforward and efective 190.9 mg/l. Te source has the highest TDS value (190.9 mg/
method for determining water quality. It is also an excellent l). TDS levels are higher in the source and water tap samples
way to disseminate information about water quality. Te than in the reservoir samples. However, the health risks are
WQI method is a straightforward and practical way to assess minimal because the TDS value is much lower than
the general quality of surface/groundwater and its appro- 1,000 mg/l, which is the WHO and NDWQS maximum
priateness as drinking water [32, 33]. Te water quality index permissible limit. Te TDS values of water in this study are
(WQI) is a measure of the acceptability of water for human higher than those in previous studies’ results, i.e., the mean
consumption that takes into account the combined efects of TDS records of various cities’ water sources; the TDS at
various water quality factors [34]. It was calculated using the Nekemte is 48 mg/l, at Damot Sore Woreda is 67.79 mg/l,
weighted arithmetic index method adopted from [35]. Te and at Tula subcity is 150.7 mg/l.
quality rating scale for each parameter qi was calculated by
using the following equation:
3.1.2. Turbidity. Te turbidity levels in the source samples
C ranged from 10 to 45 NTU, with a mean of 24.5 NTU, which
qi � 􏼠 i 􏼡 × 100. (1)
Si was higher than the WHO and NDWQS recommendation of
5 NTU and 7 NTU. Te mean turbidity values at the res-
A quality rating scale (qi) for each parameter is assigned ervoir and tap water, on the other hand, are determined to be
by dividing its concentration (Ci) in each water sample by its within the permissible limits of 1.55 NTU and 2.48 NTU,
respective standard (Si), and the result is multiplied by 100. respectively (Figure 4). Turbidity in water is caused by
Te inversely proportional value of the recommended sewage matter, which increases the risk of pathogenic or-
standard (Si) of the corresponding parameter is used to ganisms being shielded by turbidity particles and thus es-
calculate the relative weight: caping the disinfectant’s efect.
1
Wi � . (2)
Si 3.1.3. Electrical Conductivity (EC). Electrical conductivity
Te overall water quality index (WQI) was calculated by (EC), a measure of water’s ability to conduct an electric
aggregating the quality rating (Qi) with unit weight (Wi) current, is proportional to the amount of dissolved minerals
linearly: in the water but does not indicate which element is present.
In contrast, a higher EC value indicates the presence of
i−n
pollutants such as sodium, potassium, or chloride [37]. As
WQI � ⎝
⎛􏽘 Wiqi⎠
⎞. (3)
i�1
shown in Figure 5, the samples from the Hawassa water
source have a mean EC value of 339, with maximum and
Generally, WQI is discussed for a specifc and intended minimum values of 243 and 569 (μS/cm). Te Hawassa water
use of water. In this study, the WQI for drinking purposes is reservoir’s average EC is 72.75 μS/cm, with a range of 35 to
considered, and permissible WQI for the drinking water is 115 μS/cm. Similarly, Hawassa tap water has an average EC
taken as 100: value of 338.67 μS/cm, with a range of 166 to 388 μS/cm. Te
tested values for Hawassa drinking water at the source and
􏽐 q i wi tap water are within permissible limits when compared to
overall WQI � 􏼠 􏼡. (4)
􏽐 wi WHO and NDWQS standards.

3. Results and Discussion 3.1.4. Temperature. Temperature is one of the physico-

chemical factors used to determine drinking water quality.
3.1. Physicochemical Analysis Results of Source, Reservoir, and As the temperature of the water rises, so does the demand for
Tap Water Samples. Te physicochemical parameters such disinfectants and microbial activity, reducing the palatability
as total dissolved solids (TDS), turbidity, electrical con- of the water [25]. However, the results show that all of the
ductivity (EC), temperature, pH, calcium, magnesium, total temperature values for the Hawassa water samples from
hardness, alkalinity, fuoride, nitrate (NO3), sulfate (SO4), several samples are above the WHO recommended limit.
phosphate (PO4), and residual chlorine at diferent sample Te temperature range of the source was 21–22.8°C, which
locations are shown in Table 1. Figures 3–15 depict the corresponded to the minimum and maximum temperatures
detailed analysis. of the water source. Similarly, the reservoir and tap water
6 International Journal of Analytical Chemistry

Source Reservoir Tap water National standard WHO

1000

Mean value (Mg/L)

800

600

400

200

Total dissolved Solids (TDS)

Figure 3: Total dissolved solid result of source, reservoir, and tap waters.

Source Reservoir Tap water National standard WHO

25
Mean value (NTU)

20

15

10

Turbidity
Figure 4: Mean turbidity of source, reservoir, and tap waters.

Source Reservoir Tap water National standard WHO

1600
1400
Mean value (μS/cm)

1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0

Electrical conductivity (EC)

Figure 5: Mean electric conductivity values of source, reservoir, and tap waters.

samples have temperatures ranging from 21 to 24°C and 21 in water samples from various Ethiopian cities [38]. Simi-
to 23°C, respectively, which are outside of the acceptable larly, earlier research in the Damot Sore Woreda of the south
temperature range set by the World Health Organization regional state [39] reported a mean temperature of 23.27°C.
[36]. Te majority of the sampled sites had temperature
variations from the sources to the water taps, which did not
meet the WHO requirement of 15°C. Te reservoir (new 3.1.5. pH. As a starting point for the pH scale, neutral
reservoir 1) sample had the highest temperature (24°C) chemicals are used. Alkaline or basic compounds have
(Figure 6). Te tropics have a hot climate with lots of rain, a pH greater than 7.0 (7.1–14.0). Acidic compounds have
which may have contributed to the high temperatures found a pH value less than 7.0 (0–6.9). pH adjustment is
International Journal of Analytical Chemistry 7

Source Reservoir Tap water National standard WHO

25

20

Temprature (°C) 15

10

Temprature
Figure 6: Mean temperature variation of source, reservoir, and tap waters.

Source Reservoir Tap water National standard WHO

10

8
Mean value of pH

pH
Figure 7: Mean pH of source, reservoir, and tap waters.

Source Reservoir Tap water National standard WHO

80
50
Mean value of Magnisium (Mg/L)

70
Mean value of Calcium (Mg/L)

60 40

50
30
40

30 20

20
10
10

0 0

Calcium
Magnesium

Figure 8: Mean Ca and Mg value for sampled water.

a common method in water treatment and one of the most a pH range of 6.5–7.99, but the mean pH increased from
critical operational elements for water treatment processes source to tap water (Figure 7). Tere were no statistically
such as disinfection and focculation [40]. Te WHO de- signifcant diferences between sampling stations, and the
fnes the minimum and maximum permissible pH for pH levels in this study area are within WHO and national
drinkable water as 6.5 to 8.5 [36]. All water samples had guidelines.
8 International Journal of Analytical Chemistry

Source Reservoir Tap water National standard WHO

300

Mean value (Mg/L)

250

200

150

100

50

Total hardness as CaCO3

Figure 9: Total hardness mean values at diferent sampling sites.

Source Reservoir Tap water National standard WHO

250
Mean value (Mg/L)

200

150

100

50

Alkalinity
Figure 10: Alkalinity mean values at diferent sampling sites.

Source Reservoir Tap water National standard WHO

3.0
Mean value (Mg/L)

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0

Fluoride
Figure 11: Fluoride mean values at diferent sampling sites.

3.1.6. Calcium and Magnesium. Calcium comes from both could be caused by the geological contents of the well. All
natural and man-made sources. Water that fows within an reservoir and tap water samples, on the other hand, are
aquifer could be internal. Te average calcium levels in the within the recommended level of 75 mg/l. Magnesium
study’s source, reservoir, and tap waters are 72.31 mg/l, levels in this study’s source, reservoir, and tap water
32.1 mg/l, and 21.3 mg/l, respectively (Figure 8). Te samples were found to be 9.9 mg/l, 12 mg/l, and 10.33 mg/l,
maximum calcium value of the source water (Abella respectively (Figure 8). Tis means that the magnesium
Wondo No. 2 well, 160 mg/l) does not meet the WHO’s level is within an acceptable range and has no negative
calcium limit for drinking water [36]. Tese variations health implications.
International Journal of Analytical Chemistry 9

Source Reservoir Tap water National standard WHO

50

Mean value (Mg/L)

40

30

20

10

Nitrate (NO3)
Figure 12: NO3 mean values at diferent sampling sites.

Source Reservoir Tap water National standard WHO

250
Mean Value (Mg/L)

200

150

100

50

Sulphate (SO4)
Figure 13: Sulfate mean values at diferent sampling sites.

Table 1: Mean values and standard deviations of physicochemical parameters at the source, reservoir, and tap water samples.
11 samples from 4 samples from 6 samples from tap
Standard
Parameters Units source reservoir water
Mean Std. Mean Std. Mean Std. ES WHO
TDS Mg/l 190.90 58.82 67.30 32.77 170.17 42.95 1000 1000
Temp. °C 21.91 0.98 22.50 1.29 21.83 0.75 — <15
EC μS/cm 339 99.68 72.75 38.39 338.67 85.17 1500 1000
Turbidity NTU 24.45 16.21 1.55 0.45 2.48 0.38 7 5
pH — 7.13 0.37 7.54 0.07 7.69 0.24 6.5–8.5 6.5–8.5
Ca Mg/l 71.04 52.08 32.50 3.42 21.73 9.66 — 75
Mg Mg/l 9.90 3.40 12.00 3.83 10.33 1.86 50 50
F Mg/l 1.10 1.06 1.30 0.31 1.04 0.37 3 1.5
NO3 Mg/l 3.776 2.43 2.73 0.38 2.23 0.58 50 50
SO4 Mg/l 4.633 4.95 7.00 6.24 0.35 0.81 — 250
PO4 Mg/l 0.337 0.22 0.43 0.34 0.54 0.11 0.02 0.05
TH as CaCO3 Mg/l 89.864 25.95 30.00 24.15 52.50 8.22 300 300
Alkalinity Mg/l 162.5 40.88 187.50 46.64 239.17 42.83 — 200
Residual chlorine Mg/l 4.51 4.04 0.08 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.5 0.2–0.5
10 International Journal of Analytical Chemistry

Source Reservoir Tap water National standard WHO

0.6

0.5

Mean value (Mg/L)

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0.0

Phosphate (PO4)
Figure 14: Phosphate mean values at diferent sampling sites.

Source Reservoir Tap water National standard WHO

5

4
Mean value (Mg/L)

Residual chlorine
Figure 15: Residual chlorine mean values at diferent sampling sites.

3.1.7. Total Hardness. It denotes the total amount of calcium new reservoir 1 and 2, and a sample from pissa kebele sample
and magnesium ions present in the body. Initially, hardness 2 did not meet the standards established.
was measured and analyzed in raw water samples as a proxy
for water quality in terms of precipitating soap. Te highest
3.1.9. Fluoride. Te fuoride concentration in Hawassa
permissible limit of total hardness as CaCO3, according to
City’s water sources ranged from 0 to 3.9 mg/l (Figure 11).
the World Health Organization [36], is 300 mg/l. Te mean
Te fuoride concentration in the Boko Alamura well was
total hardness at the source, reservoir, and tap water is
3.9 mg/l, which was higher than WHO and national stan-
89.86 mg/l, 30 mg/l, and 52.50 mg/l, respectively, according
dards. Te WHO recommends a fuoride concentration of
to the laboratory results of this study (Figure 9). According
1.5 mg/l, but Ethiopian drinking water recommendations
to WHO standards, the degree of hardness of the Hawassa
require less than 3 mg/l [41]. Other water tests (reservoir and
City water supply is moderately soft, which is not harmful
water tap samples) came up short of the acceptable limit. Te
to users.
fuoride levels in this study exceeded the maximum values of
Damot Sore Woreda (1.13 mg/l) [5].
3.1.8. Alkalinity. Water sources tolerate extremes in these
ranges, with alkalinity values ranging from 5 to 125 mg/l 3.1.10. Nitrate (NO3). Te main sources of nitrates in
considered normal. According to the WHO standard drinking water are fertilizer runof, sewage leakage, and
guideline for drinking water potability, the maximum ac- erosion of natural deposits [42, 43]. According to laboratory
ceptable permitted value of CaCO3 should not exceed results, the mean nitrate levels of Hawassa’s water source,
200 mg/l. According to laboratory test results, the total al- reservoir, and water tap are 3.78, 2.73, and 2.23 mg/l, re-
kalinity of the Hawassa City water supply samples ranged spectively (Figure 12). Te WHO and Ethiopian standards
from 124 to 280 mg/l of CaCO3 at the source sample, were found to be met by all of the samples tested. Water with
125 mg/l to 230 mg/l at the reservoir sample, and 195 mg/l to nitrate concentrations greater than 10 mg/l nitrate-N will
310 mg/l at the tap water sample (Figure 10). According to cause methaemoglobinaemia in users, according to the
the fndings of this study, one source sample, samples from guidelines [41]. As a result, referring to the guideline, there is
International Journal of Analytical Chemistry 11

1.0 1.0
0.8 0.8
Total and feacal coliform (100 ml)

Total and feacal coliform (100 ml)

0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0.0 0.0
-0.2 -0.2
-0.4 -0.4
-0.6 -0.6
-0.8 -0.8
-1.0 -1.0
Sample station 1 Sample station 2 Sample station 1 Sample station 2
Diaspora Pissa

Total coliform/100 ml Total coliform/100 ml

feacal coliform/100 ml feacal coliform/100 ml
1.0
0.8
Total and feacal coliform (100 ml)

0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1.0
Sample station 1 Sample station 2
Millinioum

Total coliform/100 ml
feacal coliform/100 ml
Figure 16: Bacteriological analysis result.

no nitrate problem in Hawassa’s drinking water supply, 3.1.12. Phosphate (PO4). Te three most common forms of
according to the fndings. phosphorus in water are orthophosphate, condensed
phosphate, and organically bound phosphate. Phosphorus is
released in the form of phosphate by the microbial de-
3.1.11. Sulfate (SO4). Sulfates have no health-based rec- composition of organic materials. Te signifcance of
ommendations. However, because drinking water with phosphorus stems from its ability to promote eutrophication
a high sulfate concentration can cause gastrointestinal ef- in the presence of other nutrients, particularly nitrogen. Te
fects, drinking water sources with a sulfate concentration of phosphorus quality criterion in water serves only to prevent
more than 500 mg/l should be reported to health authorities. undesirable algal growth [44]. Te mean phosphate con-
Sulfate in drinking water can also cause a noticeable taste centrations in this study for source, reservoir, and water tap
and contribute to distribution system corrosion [36]. Te samples were 0.38 mg/l, 0.43 mg/l, and 0.54 mg/l, re-
study’s laboratory results show that the mean sulfate level in spectively. Phosphate concentrations in tap water were
the Hawassa water supply’s source, reservoir, and tap water found to be higher (0.54 mg/l). Te observed value was
is 4.63 mg/l, 7 mg/l, and 0.31 mg/l, respectively (Figure 13). higher than the permissible level for drinking water rec-
Te reservoir sample has the highest mean value. However, ommended by WHO and ES. Te phosphate concentration
according to WHO standards, there is no sulfate problem in in household tap water was higher than that in source and
the study area. reservoir samples, indicating that there is phosphate ion
12 International Journal of Analytical Chemistry

Source Reservoir Tap water

Rank WQI value
100 Excellent <50
Good 50-100
Poor water 100-200
Very poor water 200-300
80 Unsuitable for drinking >300
WQI value

60

40

20

WQI value
Figure 17: Water quality indexes result of Hawassa drinking water.

pollution in the supply network, as shown in Figure 14. Te likely that other pathogenic bacteria or organisms exist.
mean phosphate value in Hawassa’s water supply, on the Total coliform must be absent in public drinking water
other hand, is not signifcantly diferent from previous supplies, according to the WHO and Ethiopian drinking
fndings [38] in Nekemte, Oromia, and [5] in Damot Sore water feces. In this study, no coliform bacteria were found at
Woreda drinking water supply). any of the sampling sites. Figure 16 depicts the mean total
coliform bacteria levels in drinking water collected from the
study area.
3.1.13. Residual Chlorine. Te World Health Organization
recommends a minimum free chlorine residual of 0.2 mg/L
and a maximum residual chlorine of 0.5 mg/L in any water 3.3. Evaluation of Water Quality Index in the Study Area.
supply distribution network (http://www.Safewater.Org). WQI is a well-known and efective tool widely used in water
Several studies have discovered that when residual chlorine quality assessment [32]. Water quality data are extremely
levels fall below recommended levels, a variety of water important for policy adjustment, and the water quality index
quality issues can occur. Bacteria and viruses known as (WQI) is the most convenient way to transmit the quality of
bacteriophages can multiply in water that has not been drinking water resources. Several water quality indices have
thoroughly disinfected. It may also be capable of causing been developed over the years by national or international
waterborne infections, depending on the species. organizations and are used to assess water quality in a variety
Te Ethiopian drinking water standard also recom- of scenarios. Figure 17 depicts the WQI and overall WQI of
mends a residual chlorine level of 0.5 mg/l in drinking water. all samples obtained, as determined by equations (1)–(4).
However, the mean free residual chlorine (FRC) concen- According to the fndings of this study, the WQI of
tration of water samples from the reservoir and the tap in Hawassa’s drinking water supply is within acceptable limits
this study was 0.08 mg/l and 0 mg/l, respectively (Figure 15). (100). Te WQI was divided into fve categories, ranging
Tese values were lower than the WHO and ES maximum from “excellent water quality” to “unft for use water.”
concentrations. Tis indicates that the water can be Te indices were developed primarily to refect changes
recontaminated and that there is no reserved chlorine to in the physicochemical quality of surface water. Tey can,
disinfect it, which could lead to a water-related disease in the however, be used as components of environmental change.
consumer. Te discovered result is also lower than the Tere are temporal variations within an aquatic system. Te
fndings reported in previous studies, for example, at the system impact of this change can be measured by linking
Nekemte main distribution tank (0.23 mg/l and 0.28 mg/l, water quality to potential water use [45, 46]. In this study
respectively) [38]. area, average WQI scores (ranging from 67.5 to 89) indicated
that drinking water quality is good.

3.2. Bacteriological Analysis. Te total coliform group has 4. Conclusions

been chosen as the primary indicator bacteria for the
presence of pathogens in drinking water [26]. It is a primary Te study’s goal was to assess the drinking quality of Hawassa,
indicator of water’s suitability for consumption. If a large Ethiopia, by looking at physical, chemical, and bacteriological
number of coliforms are discovered in water, it is highly drinking water parameters. Te drinking water quality
International Journal of Analytical Chemistry 13

parameters from the Hawassa City water supply’s source, References

main reservoirs, and tap water were examined using on-site
measurement and experimental analysis. Te fndings [1] N. Adimalla and H. Qian, “Evaluation of non-carcinogenic
revealed that the majority of the water quality parameters causing health risks (NCHR) associated with exposure of
fuoride and nitrate contaminated groundwater from a semi-
were within the WHO and Ethiopian drinking water quality
arid region of south India,” Environmental Science and Pol-
standards. Total dissolved solids (TDS), electric conductivity lution Research, vol. 30, 2022.
(EC), pH, total hardness (TH), phosphate (PO4), nitrate [2] W. M. Desta, M. E. Bote, and M. E. Bote, “Wastewater
(NO3), sulfate (SO4), calcium (Ca), and magnesium (Mg) are treatment using a natural coagulant (Moringa oleifera seeds):
among them. However, some physiochemical parameters optimization through response surface methodology,” Heli-
(temperature, turbidity, fuoride at one well source, and re- yon, vol. 7, no. 11, Article ID e08451, 2021.
sidual chlorine) do not meet standards. Te temperature of all [3] S. N. Ugwu, A. F. Umuokoro, E. A. Echiegu,
water samples from the source, reservoir, and tap water B. O. Ugwuishiwu, and C. C. Enweremadu, “Comparative
exceeded 15°C. Te source sample has the highest mean study of the use of natural and artifcial coagulants for the
turbidity (24.5 NTU). However, the turbidity levels in res- treatment of sullage (domestic wastewater),” Cogent Engi-
ervoir and tap water samples are within acceptable limits neering, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 1365676–1365713, 2017.
(1.55 NTU and 2.48 NTU, respectively). Te presence of [4] N. Adimalla, R. Manne, Y. Zhang, P. Xu, and H. Qian,
“Evaluation of groundwater quality and its suitability for
0.08 mg/l and 0 mg/l of free residual chlorine in tap water
drinking purposes in semi-arid region of Southern India: an
samples indicates that an insufcient amount of chlorine is application of GIS,” Geocarto International, vol. 37, no. 25,
added at the treatment plant, which could lead to reconta- pp. 10843–10854, 2022a.
mination of drinking water and health issues for the user. Te [5] M. Bekele, M. Dananto, and D. Tadele, “International In-
results, on the other hand, showed that the sample analyzed stitute for applied research article number: se-j,” Applied
was not contaminated with both total and fecal coliform, Research Journal of Environmental Engineering, vol. 1, no. 1,
indicating that the water supply is well protected from human pp. 26–38, 2018.
excreta and animal waste. In this study area, the overall [6] W. M. Desta and A. Befkadu, “Customer and model based
average values of WQIs for source, reservoir, and tap water performance evaluation of water distribution systems: the
were 89, 71, and 67.5, respectively. As a result of the study’s case of adama Town, Ethiopia,” Iranian Journal of Energy and
fndings, the drinking water quality in Hawassa City can be Environment, vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 13–18, 2020.
classifed as good or fair based on the water quality index [7] W. M. Desta, F. F. Feyessa, and S. K. Debela, “Modeling and
optimization of pressure and water age for evaluation of urban
classifcations. Quality analysis and operational changes will
water distribution systems performance,” Heliyon, vol. 8,
be critical in improving Hawassa City’s water supply system. no. 11, Article ID e11257, 2022.
To further guarantee that the water is ft for human use, [8] T. T. Aragaw and G. Gnanachandrasamy, “Evaluation of
frequent drinking water quality tests should be conducted at groundwater quality for drinking and irrigation purposes
the source, primary distribution tanks, distribution systems, using GIS-based water quality index in urban area of Abaya-
and pipelines. Te investigation was limited to evaluate Chemo sub-basin of Great Rift Valley, Ethiopia,” Applied
bacteriological and physiochemical parameters of the water Water Science, vol. 11, no. 9, pp. 148–220, 2021.
delivery system from the source to household tap connections [9] H. S. Atta, M. A. S. Omar, and A. M. Tawfk, “Water quality
during the dry season. A comparable investigation ought to be index for assessment of drinking groundwater purpose case
carried out during the rainy season of the year. In addition, study: area surrounding Ismailia Canal, Egypt,” Journal of
additional water quality factors such as heavy metals and their Engineering and Applied Science, vol. 69, no. 1, pp. 83–17,
sources should be taken into account in future research. 2022.
[10] I. Grinfelde, J. Pilecka-Ulcugaceva, M. Bertins et al., “Dataset
of trace elements concentrations in snow samples collected in
Data Availability Jelgava City (Latvia) in December 2020,” Data in Brief, vol. 38,
Article ID 107300, 2021.
Te data that support the fndings of this study are available [11] F. Ustaoğlu, Y. Tepe, and B. Taş, “Assessment of stream
from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. quality and health risk in a subtropical Turkey river system:
a combined approach using statistical analysis and water
quality index,” Ecological Indicators, vol. 113, no. May, Article
Conflicts of Interest ID 105815, 2020.
[12] S. Tyagi, B. Sharma, P. Singh, and R. Dobhal, “Water quality
Te authors declare that there are no conficts of interest. assessment in terms of water quality index,” American Journal
of Water Resources, vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 34–38, 2020.
[13] M. Camara, N. R. Jamil, and A. F. B. Abdullah, “Impact of land
Acknowledgments uses on water quality in Malaysia: a review,” Ecological
Processes, vol. 8, no. 1, 2019.
Te authors gratefully acknowledge Hawassa University, [14] S. Giri and Z. Qiu, “Understanding the relationship of land
Institute of Technology Faculty of Biosystem and Water uses and water quality in Twenty First Century: a review,”
Resource Engineering, Department of Water Supply and Journal of Environmental Management, vol. 173, pp. 41–48,
Environmental Engineering, and Pan African University 2016.
Institute of Water and Energy Science (including climate [15] W. M. Desta, D. B. Lemma, and T. A. Tessema, “Removal of
change), Tlemcen, Algeria, for supporting us in all cases. iron and manganese from groundwater by using aeration and
14 International Journal of Analytical Chemistry

natural sand fltration techniques,” Chemistry Africa, vol. 5, [30] F. I. M. Carvalho, V. P. Lemos, H. A. Dantas Filho, and
no. 6, pp. 2217–2226, 2022b. K. D. G. F. Dantas, “Assessment of groundwater quality from
[16] J. Grönwall and K. Danert, “Regarding groundwater and the Belém based on physicochemical parameters and levels of
drinking water access through a human rights lens: self- trace elements using multivariate analysis,” Revista Virtual de
Supply as a norm,” Water (Switzerland), vol. 12, no. 2, Quimica, vol. 7, no. 6, pp. 2221–2241, 2015.
p. 419, 2020. [31] R. S. Meena, S. Kumar, R. Datta et al., “Impact of agro-
[17] S. A. Wheeler, A. Zuo, and J. Kandulu, “What water are we chemicals on soil microbiota and management: a review,”
really pumping? Te nature and extent of surface and Land, vol. 9, no. 2, p. 34, 2020.
groundwater substitutability in Australia and implications for [32] H. Aydin, F. Ustaoğlu, Y. Tepe, and E. N. Soylu, “Assessment
water management policies,” Applied Economic Perspectives of water quality of streams in northeast Turkey by water
and Policy, vol. 43, no. 4, pp. 1550–1570, 2021. quality index and multiple statistical methods,” Environ-
[18] P. Vasistha and R. Ganguly, “Water quality assessment of mental Forensics, vol. 22, no. 1–2, pp. 270–287, 2021.
natural lakes and its importance: an overview,” Materials [33] F. Ustaoğlu, B. Taş, Y. Tepe, and H. Topaldemir, “Compre-
Today: Proceedings, vol. 32, no. xxxx, pp. 544–552, 2020. hensive assessment of water quality and associated health risk
[19] T. Hassan, S. Parveen, B. N. Bhat, and U. Ahmad, “Seasonal by using physicochemical quality indices and multivariate
variations in water quality parameters of river yamuna, India,” analysis in Terme River, Turkey,” Environmental Science and
International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Pollution Research, vol. 28, no. 44, pp. 62736–62754, 2021.
Sciences, vol. 6, no. 5, pp. 694–712, 2017. [34] B. J. J. Al-Sabah, “Application of water quality index to as-
[20] N. Adimalla, “Spatial distribution, exposure, and potential sessment of tigris river,” International Journal of Current
health risk assessment from nitrate in drinking water from Microbiology and Applied Sciences, vol. 5, no. 10, pp. 397–407,
semi-arid region of South India,” Human and Ecological Risk 2016.
Assessment: An International Journal, vol. 26, no. 2, [35] J. Yisa and T. Jimoh, “Analytical studies on water quality
pp. 310–334, 2020a. index of river Landzu,” American Journal of Applied Sciences,
[21] M. E. Bote and W. M. Desta, “Removal of turbidity from vol. 7, no. 4, pp. 453–458, 2010.
domestic wastewater using electrocoagulation: optimization [36] World Health Organization (Who), Water Safety in Distri-
with response surface methodology,” Chemistry Africa, vol. 5, bution Systems, vol. 157, World Health Organization, Geneva,
no. 1, pp. 123–134, 2022. Switzerland, 2014.
[22] M. Allen, R. Clark, J. A. Cotruvo, and N. Grigg, “Drinking [37] E. O. Orebiyi, J. A. Awomeso, O. A. Idowu, O. Martins,
water and public health in an era of aging distribution in- O. Oguntoke, and A. M. Taiwo, “Assessment of pollution
frastructure,” Public Works Management and Policy, vol. 23, hazards of shallow well water in Abeokuta and environs,
no. 4, pp. 301–309, 2018. southwest, Nigeria,” American Journal of Environmental
[23] P. Levallois, P. Barn, M. Valcke, D. Gauvin, and T. Kosatsky, Sciences, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 50–56, 2010.
“Public health consequences of lead in drinking water,” [38] G. Duressa, F. Assefa, and M. Jida, “Assessment of bacteri-
Current Environmental Health Reports, vol. 5, no. 2, ological and physicochemical quality of drinking water from
pp. 255–262, 2018. source to household tap connection in Nekemte, Oromia,
[24] M. A. Saeed, G. Murtaza, S. Ali et al., “Assessment of drinking Ethiopia,” Journal of Environmental and Public Health,
water quality and associated socio-economic impacts in arid vol. 2019, Article ID 2129792, 7 pages, 2019.
mountainous regions,” Sustainability, vol. 14, no. 19, p. 12567, [39] M. B. Addisie, “Evaluating drinking water quality using water
2022. quality parameters and esthetic attributes,” Air, Soil and
[25] D. F. Brook Abate, “Assessment of the quality of drinking Water Research, vol. 15, no. 1, Article ID 117862212210750,
water supply, and the status of sanitation and hygiene in 2022.
mudulla Town, tembaro,” Civil and Environmental Research, [40] T. D. Daniel, D. F. Fitamo, B. A. Abate, and A. O. Osore,
vol. 8, no. 6, pp. 67–78, 2016. “Assessment of the quality of drinking water supply, and the
[26] Y. Meride and B. Ayenew, “Drinking water quality assessment status of sanitation and hygiene in Mudulla Town, Tembaro
and its efects on residents health in Wondo genet campus, Woreda, Southern Ethiopia,” Te International Institute for
Ethiopia,” Environmental Systems Research, vol. 5, no. 1, p. 1, Science, Technology and Education (IISTE), vol. 8, no. 6, 2016.
2016. [41] A. O. Aga, B. Chane, and A. M. Melesse, “Soil erosion
[27] N. Adimalla, H. Qian, and D. M. Tiwari, “Groundwater modelling and risk assessment in data scarce rift valley lake
chemistry, distribution and potential health risk appraisal of regions, Ethiopia,” Water (Switzerland), vol. 10, no. 11,
nitrate enriched groundwater: a case study from the semi- p. 1684, 2018.
urban region of South India,” Ecotoxicology and Environ- [42] N. Adimalla, H. Qian, and M. J. Nandan, “Groundwater
mental Safety, vol. 207, no. 126, Article ID 111277, 2021. chemistry integrating the pollution index of groundwater and
[28] R. S. Farag, M. S. Abdel Latif, A. E. Abd El-Gawad, and evaluation of potential human health risk: a case study from
S. M. Dogheim, “Monitoring of pesticide residues in some hard rock terrain of south India,” Ecotoxicology and Envi-
Egyptian herbs, fruits and vegetables,” International Food ronmental Safety, vol. 206, no. 126, Article ID 111217, 2020.
Research Journal, vol. 18, no. Issue 2, 2011. [43] A. Ocheli, O. B. Otuya, and S. O. Umayah, “Appraising the
[29] F. H. R. Braga, M. L. S. Dutra, N. S. Lima et al., “Study of the risk level of physicochemical and bacteriological twin con-
infuence of physicochemical parameters on the water quality taminants of water resources in part of the western Niger
index (WQI) in the maranhão amazon, Brazil,” Water Delta region,” Environmental Monitoring and Assessment,
(Switzerland), vol. 14, no. 10, pp. 1546–1613, 2022. vol. 192, no. 5, p. 324, 2020.
International Journal of Analytical Chemistry 15

[44] M. A. Nkansah, N. O. Boadi, and M. Badu, “Assessment of the

quality of water from hand-dug wells in Ghana,” Environ-
mental Health Insights, vol. 4, pp. EHI.S3149–12, 2010.
[45] N. Adimalla and H. Qian, “Groundwater quality evaluation
using water quality index (WQI) for drinking purposes and
human health risk (HHR) assessment in an agricultural region
of Nanganur, south India,” Ecotoxicology and Environmental
Safety, vol. 176, no. 126, pp. 153–161, 2019.
[46] A. M. S. Abazi, B. H. Durmishi, F. S. Sallaku et al., “As-
sessment of water quality of sitnica river by using water
quality index (WQI),” Rasayan Journal of Chemistry, vol. 13,
no. 01, pp. 146–159, 2020.