DESIGN GUIDELINE

Composite Concrete-Steel
Structures
FOR / Structural Engineering Services
CLIENT / BG&E
DOCUMENT NO / 000000-REP-S-0014
REV / A
DATE / 12/01/2022

www.bgeeng.com
CONTENTS

1 SCOPE 1
1.1 Overview 1
2 TERMS AND DEFINITIONS 1
2.1 Terms used and comments 1
3 STEEL COMPOSITE THEORY 2
3.1 Benefits of achieving composite action 2
3.2 Achieving Composite Action 2
3.3 Stages of Composite Construction 3
4 COMPOSITE BEAM DESIGN FOR STRENGTH 3
4.1 Effective Concrete Flange 3
4.2 Capacity Factors for ULS 4
4.3 Neutral Axis 5
4.3.1 Formulas for Neutral Axis and Moment Capacity 6
4.4 Shear Connection Design 6
4.4.1 Shear Stud Mechanism 6
4.4.2 Crushing Zone – Stud to Rib 8
4.4.3 Shear connector failure modes 8
4.4.4 Longitudinal Shear 9
4.5 Potentially Critical Cross Sections 11
4.6 Full vs Partial Shear Connection 12
4.6.1 Shear Connection vs Moment Capacity 12
4.6.2 Determining Reduced Moment Capacity MR 13
4.7 Combined Shear and Bending 13
4.8 Moment Capacity of Steel Beams under Wet Concrete Only 14
5 COMPOSITE BEAM DESIGN FOR SLS 14
5.1 Simply Supported beams 14
5.1.1 Unpropped Construction Deflection 15
5.1.2 Vibration 17
5.1.3 Propped Construction 19
5.2 Continuous Beams 19

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 5.3 Secondary Effects 20
6 DESIGN OF COMPOSITE SLABS 20
6.1 Types of profiles 20
6.1.1 Lysaght Bondek (Re-entrant Profile) 20
6.1.2 Stramit Condek (Re-entrant Profile) 21
6.1.3 Fielders RF55 (Re-entrant Profile) 21
6.1.4 Fielders KF70 (Trapezoidal Profile) 22
6.1.5 Fielders CF210 (Trapezoidal Profile) 22
6.2 Comparisons 22
6.3 Cold-Formed to AS4600 (Non-composite slab) 23
6.3.1 Section properties 23
6.4 Composite Slab Design 23
6.5 Construction Loads 23
6.6 Achieving FRL of Composite Slabs 24
7 DESIGN OF COMPOSITE COLUMNS 24
7.1 Composite Columns 24
7.1.1 CFT – Concrete Filled Tube 24
7.2 Method of Analysis 25
7.2.1 Steel Classification 25
7.2.2 Steel contribution Factor 25
7.2.3 Relative slenderness 25
7.3 Types of Steel Composite Columns 26
7.3.1 Embedded Steel Composite Column 27
7.3.2 Concrete Filled Tube 28
8 RECOMMENDED SOFTWARES 28
8.1 Companel – Liberty Steel 28
8.2 KingFlor Design Suite (KingBeam and KingSlab) 29
8.3 RAPT 29
8.4 Oasys GSA 29
8.5 TATA Steel FireSoft 29
9 REFERENCES 29

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 Document Control

Revision Date Description Prepared Reviewed Approved

A 12/01/2022 For Information L Petraccaro M Shaheen R Hassani

A person using BG&E Pty Ltd documents or data accepts the risks of:
a) Using the documents or data in electronic form without requesting and checking
them for accuracy against the original hard copy version; and
b) Using the documents or data for any purpose not agreed to in writing by BG&E.

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1 SCOPE

1.1 Overview

This guideline provides a broad outline of steel composite design and how they are designed at BG&E. This
guideline will be separated by the design of various structural elements, i.e. steel composite beams,
composite slabs and composite columns.
The following guideline will draw primarily AS2327.1 – 2017 and Eurocode 4 in addition to general rules of
thumb and best practices.

2 TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

2.1 Terms used and comments

• Full/Complete Shear Connection (β=1)

o The condition where the moment capacity of the cross-section of the composite beam is not
governed by the strength of the shear connection.
• Composite Beam
o A steel beam and a solid or composite slab interconnected by a shear connector to act
together to resist action effects as a single structural member.
• Composite slab
o A cast in situ concrete slab that incorporates profile steel sheeting as permanent soffit
formwork.
• Critical cross -section
o A transverse cross-section at which the ratio of either the design bending moment (M*) to
the design moment capacity (φMbv), or the design vertical shear force (V*) to the design
vertical shear capacity (φVu) is a maximum.
• Degree of shear connection (β)
o Is the ratio obtained by dividing the shear connectors maximum capacity by the minimum
capacity required by the connectors to ensure a composite section that complies with the
full shear connection requirement.
• Effective width of concrete flange (bef)
o The overall width of the portion of a concrete slab, at a composite beam cross-section,
considered effective in resisting compression after allowing for shear lag.
• Shear connector
o A mechanical device connected to the steel member which forms part of the shear
connection.

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3 STEEL COMPOSITE THEORY

3.1 Benefits of achieving composite action

Consider the following two sections:

• Section 1: Two timber beams of Depth D and Width B.
• Section 2: A timber beam of Depth 2D and Width B.

Section 1 (Non-composite) Section 2 (Composite)

𝟐𝐵𝐷2 𝐵(2𝐷)2 𝟒𝐵𝐷2

Z= Z= =
6 6
6
𝟐𝐵𝐷3 𝐵(2𝐷)3 𝟖𝐵𝐷3
𝐼= 𝐼= =
12 12
12

From the above comparison table, the composite section (Section 2) has 2x as much bending capacity and is
4x as much stiffness as Section 1.

3.2 Achieving Composite Action

To achieve composite action, we must try to minimise the slip and make the two elements act as one - via
the use of shear connectors.

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3.3 Stages of Composite Construction

The following table highlights the 6 stages for composite slab and beam construction. A more detailed
explanation of the stages can be found in Appendix A of AS2327-2017. Appendix A also includes information
regarding the minimum construction stage loads which need to be considered at the various stages.

Stage # AS2327-2017 – 6 stages of construction for composite slab and beam construction
Stage 1 Erection of steelwork and installation of falsework (i.e. possibly props, profiled steel
deck of formwork). Fixing forms to beams
Stage 2 Attachment of shear connectors and fixture of reinforcement. Installation of props to
steel beams (if required)
Stage 3 Commencement of casting slab until initial set of concrete

Stage 4 Hardening of slabs after the initial set of concrete

Stage 5 Hardening of concrete after initial set until the compressive stress reaches 15MPa.
Possible unpropping of beams and slabs.
Stage 6 Completion of construction up until “in-service” condition. Full composite action
achieved.

4 COMPOSITE BEAM DESIGN FOR STRENGTH

4.1 Effective Concrete Flange

For concrete L and T beams, the contribution of the concrete flange is limited and it is important to note that
the ‘actual effective width’ varies along the length. The extent of the slab width which is effective, in the
elastic range is based on shear lag theory. Shear lag results in non-uniform in-plane shear stress in the slab.
To ensure that simple bending theory can be applied for analysis i.e. “plane sections remain plane” the
effective width concept is introduced. This allows an idealised width where it is assumed that these stresses
are for the most part uniform. Figure (a) highlights non-uniform stress distribution and fig (b) shows idealised
stress distribution.

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The effective width of a composite beam is given by cl.3.2.4.1. It is important to note that for slabs utilising
ribbed profile sheeting if the angle between the axis of the steel beam and the direction of the ribbing is
greater than 15 degrees then only the area of the slab above the ribbing will be used.

4.2 Capacity Factors for ULS

Once composite action is fully developed the composite member shall be proportioned so that the ultimate
limit state of strength is satisfied by ensuring that the design capacity (ϕRu) is not less than the design action
effect (S*) for all critical cross-sections and regions, such that:
ϕRu > S*
where
ϕ = a capacity factor not greater than the value given in Table 1.4.3
Ru = the nominal capacity
S* = the corresponding design action effect

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4.3 Neutral Axis

There are three possible neutral axis locations when calculating the moment capacity of a steel composite
beam. They are listed below and shown diagrammatically in the figure.
1. Within the slab
2. Within the top flange of the steel beam
3. Within the web of the steel beam

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 4.3.1 Formulas for Neutral Axis and Moment Capacity
The following formulas can be used to determine the moment capacity of a steel composite beam with a full-
shear connection. The definitions of the below terms have been provided in section 2 terms and definitions.
Plastic
Condition Calculation of NA (x) Moment Capacity (Mbc)
NA

Concrete 𝑁𝑦𝑑,𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐷 𝑥
𝑁𝑐𝑑,𝑚𝑎𝑥 ≥ 𝑁𝑦𝑑,𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑥 = ℎ𝑐 ( ) 𝑁𝑐𝑑,𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝐷𝑠 + − )
Slab 𝑁𝑐𝑑,𝑚𝑎𝑥 2 2

𝑑 ℎ𝑐
𝑁𝑦𝑑,𝑚𝑎𝑥 ( + 𝐷𝑠 − ) − 𝑁𝑎𝑐 (𝑥 − ℎ𝑐
2 2
+ 𝐷𝑠 )/2
Top 𝑁𝑦𝑑,𝑚𝑎𝑥 −(∅𝑓𝑦 𝑏𝑓 𝑡𝑓 ) < 𝑁𝑐𝑑,𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑁𝑦𝑑,𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑁𝑐𝑑,𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐷𝑠 + Where
Flange < 𝑁𝑦𝑑, 𝑚𝑎𝑥 2∅𝑓𝑦 𝑏𝑓
𝑁𝑎𝑐 = 2(𝑥 − 𝐷𝑠 )∅𝑓𝑦 𝑏𝑓

𝑑 ℎ𝑐 𝑡𝑓
𝑁𝑐𝑑 ( + 𝐷𝑠 − ) + 2𝑁𝑓 (𝐷𝑠 + )
2 2 2
− 2𝑁𝑐𝑤 (𝑥
𝑁𝑦𝑑,𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑁𝑐𝑑,𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 2𝑁𝑓 + 𝑡𝑓 +𝐷𝑠 -ℎ𝑐 )/2
Web 𝑁𝑦𝑑,𝑚𝑎𝑥 +(∅𝑓𝑦 𝑏𝑓 𝑡𝑓 ) < 𝑁𝑦𝑑, 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐷𝑠 + 𝑡𝑓
2∅𝑓𝑦 𝑏𝑓 Where
𝑁𝑐𝑤 = ∅𝑓𝑦 𝑡𝑤 (𝑥 − 𝐷𝑠 − 𝑡𝑓 )/2

4.4 Shear Connection Design

Shear connectors have three functions:

1. Prevent slip between the concrete and steel surfaces due to horizontal shear
2. Prevent vertical separation of the two surfaces
3. Provide ductility i.e to deform sufficiently before failure to distribute the load to other shear
connectors

4.4.1 Shear Stud Mechanism

Most of the horizontal load is taken on the shaft of the stud. However, there is also a significant strut and tie
effect that prevents the separation of the materials at the interface. This is one of the reasons why the studs
are headed.

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Shear studs are provided to resist horizontal shear forces. These horizontal shear forces are induced due to
vertical shear which varies along the length of a beam. Shear studs are typically detailed to be evenly spread
over the length of the beam, despite the increase of the shear load towards the beam ends which would
require more concentration of shear connector. However, in most cases, even distribution of connectors
along the span remains appropriate because the studs are ductile and have enough deformation capacity to
share the load to adjacent studs. The below figure illustrates the differences between elastic shear flow,
idealised plastic shear flow and actual shear flow at the failure of a steel composite beam.

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 4.4.2 Crushing Zone – Stud to Rib

As can be seen by the figure above the compression strut location can influence the shear connectivity of the
composite beam when ribbed profile sheeting is used. AS2327-2017 cl 3.6.3.4 outlines the following two
formulae for determining the shear connector reduction factors associated with profile sheeting.
Where the sheeting ribs are transverse to the steel beam.
0.7 ∗ 𝑏𝑜 ℎ𝑠𝑐
𝑘𝑡 = { − 1} ≤ 𝑘𝑡,𝑚𝑎𝑥
√𝑛𝑓 ∗ ℎ𝑝 ℎ𝑝
Where the sheeting ribs are parallel to the steel beam.
𝑏𝑜 ℎ𝑠𝑐
𝑘𝑡 = 0.6 ∗ { − 1} ≤ 1.0
ℎ𝑝 ℎ𝑝

Kt,max are upper limits based on the particular profile of the sheeting and is given in table 3.6.2.4.2.

4.4.3 Shear connector failure modes

There are two potential failure modes for the shear connectors (see cl 3.6.2.3):

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 1. Crushing of Concrete around the stud

2
𝑃𝑅𝑘 = 0.29𝑑𝑏𝑐 √𝑓𝑐𝑗 𝐸𝑐 [N]

2. Failure of the Stud Itself

fuc = Ultimate tensile strength of stud = 410MPa

αshear = 0.7 (headed stud) or 0.5 (bolt)

𝑃𝑅𝑘 = 𝛼𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑑2 𝑏𝑐 𝑓𝑢𝑐 [N]

The lesser of the two above values is used from the above two equations, it is then multiplied by φ=0.8 and
the relevant “k” factor to obtain the final shear stud capacity per stud. For Solid slabs the k=1.0, whereas for
composite slabs the “k” factor can be determined as in cl 3.6.2.4 which is a function of the orientation of the
sheeting ribs relative to the supporting beams (ref section 4.2.2)

4.4.4 Longitudinal Shear

AS2723-2017 outlines two methods for designing for longitudinal shear. Both methods are also included in
Eurocode 4. The design guidelines below will focus on the strut & tie method for the design of longitudinal
shear. When considering longitudinal shear design, it is important to understand the various shear planes
which need to be considered and the reinforcement which can be used to resist this force. Solid slabs and
profiled slabs (those using sheeting) have different shear planes and reinforcement contributions. AS2327
highlights these diagrammatically in Figures 3.8.3 and 3.8.9 for solid and profiled slabs respectively.

4.4.4.1 Strut & Tie Method

The following method is adapted from cl 6.2.4 EN 1992-1-1 and based on strut and tie theory. The shear
strength of the concrete flange shall be evaluated using a truss analogy, provided it is assumed that

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successive concrete struts form in the flange of the beam with transverse reinforcement acting as ties to
maintain equilibrium and prevent the concrete struts from rotating.
The length of the triangle is dependent on the ½ included angle and should be between 26.5° & 45° for
compression flanges or 38.6° and 45° for tension flanges.

𝐹 𝑁
𝑣𝑙∗ = 𝑛′𝑐𝑐 [ ] – Shear force per unit length of beam
𝑛 𝑆 𝑚𝑚

𝑉𝐿∗ = 𝑣𝑙∗ ∗ 𝑆 [𝑁] – Shear force per triangle

𝑉𝐿∗
𝐶 = 0.5 ∗ [𝑁] – Compression force in each strut
sin 𝜃

𝑉𝐿∗
𝑇 = 0.5 ∗ [𝑁] – Tension force in tie
tan 𝜃

The force in the tie must be taken by the reinforcement, including Ppb.Rd S (the contribution of the anchored
steel tray). Solving for Ast will give the required reinforcement:

T = ∅(𝐴𝑠𝑡 𝑓𝑠𝑦 + 𝑃𝑝𝑏.𝑅𝑑 S) [N]

4.4.4.2 Additional Comments on Longitudinal Shear

o No proprietary software calculates the requirements for longitudinal shear reinforcement. If care is
not taken to do preliminary numbers on reinforcement rates this could be missed and be an
additional cost.
o The strut capacity must be checked in accordance with equation 3.8.4(2)
o Reinforcement required for longitudinal shear needs to be added to that which is required by
transverse bending. i.e. slab bending over the beam. Refer cl 3.8.5.
o Significant efficiency in reinforcement rates can be obtained by utilising the steel sheeting to resist
tension in combination with cl 3.8.5. Where half of the reinforcement required for longitudinal shear
can be used for transverse bending.
o Anchorage of longitudinal shear reinforcement must be in accordance with cl 3.8.8 and special
treatment at discontinuous edges must be in accordance with cl 3.6.2.7.1 where U-bars are required.

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4.5 Potentially Critical Cross Sections

A potentially critical cross-section (PCC) is defined as:

a) Sections of maximum design bending moment
b) Sections of maximum design vertical shear
c) Heavy concentrated load occurring within a positive moment region
d) A sudden change of cross-section
e) A member that is tapered
f) The concrete flange is unusually wide

The concrete flange of a beam is deemed to be unusually large when the plastic moment capacity of the
composite section exceeds 2.5 times the plastic moment capacity of the steel section alone.

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When the flange is unusually large it is required to consider PCC’s midway between the point of the maximum
moment and the supports. This is because the moment capacity may be reducing faster than the design
bending moment when moving away from the maximum moment position.
The drop-off in the capacity is due to the diminishing number of shear connectors between the section being
considered and the beam end.
The result of checking these additional PCCs may be an increase in shear connectors in the ¼ spans adjacent
to the supports.
4.6 Full vs Partial Shear Connection

The equations provided in section 3.6.1 for determining the moment capacity of a steel composite beam are
based on full shear interaction i.e. (β=1). This is rarely the case as mentioned earlier achieving full shear
interaction requires a strong connection and many shear studs.
4.6.1 Shear Connection vs Moment Capacity
The following graph has been taken from AS2327-2017 and indicates how the moment capacity of a cross-
section may vary with the degree of shear connection. A conservative linear approximation can be used to
determine based on β the section moment capacity Mr.

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Note as the degree of shear connection reduces the plastic centroid lowers until it is at the centre of the steel
beam when the degree of shear connection is zero.

4.6.2 Determining Reduced Moment Capacity MR

In determining the moment capacity 𝑀𝑟 for a given value of 𝛽 we can conservatively linearly extrapolate as
mentioned above using the graph provided in AS2327 or use an improved bi-linear approximation by
calculating the moment capacity 𝛽 =0.5. Note 𝛽 = 𝐹𝑐𝑝 /𝐹𝑐𝑐 where 𝐹𝑐𝑐 is the full concrete compression capacity
and 𝐹𝑐𝑝 is the reduced concrete compression capacity limited by the number of shear connectors.

𝑀𝑅 = 𝑀𝑠 + (𝑀𝑏𝑐 − 𝑀𝑠 )𝐹𝑐𝑝 /𝐹𝑐𝑐

4.7 Combined Shear and Bending

In the previous version of AS2327 it was assumed that all the vertical shear was taken by the web of the steel
beam. If 𝑉 ∗ is greater than 0.5𝜙𝑉𝑢 then reductions would be made to the bending capacity. In AS2327-2017
the contribution of the slab can be included to resist shear and there is a requirement to check combined
bending and shear. It seems prudent however to assume particularly for thin slabs commonly used in steel
composite construction that the full shear force is taken by the beam.

Cl 3.5.6 has the following formula:

𝑀∗ 𝑉∗
(𝑀 )3 + (𝑉 )6 ≤ 1 3.5.6
𝑟𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝

Where;
Mrd = +ve design moment of resistance of the composite section
Vcomp = Shear strength of the composite section
Vcomp = Vslab + Vpl,Rd
VPl,Rd = Shear strength of the steel beam alone
Vslab = Shear strength of the concrete slab accounting for the effects of the shear connection between the
slab and the beam

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 𝑉𝑆𝑙𝑎𝑏 = ∅𝑓(𝜆𝑠𝑑 )(𝑏𝑓 𝐷𝑠 )0.7 √𝑓𝑐′ 3.5.5 (2)
𝑓(𝜆𝑠𝑑 ) = 110𝜆𝑠𝑑 + 13
𝜆𝑠𝑑 = 𝐷𝑠 /𝐷𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝

If the composite beam is partially connected:

𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝛽 = 𝛼𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝
1−𝛽
𝛼= +𝛽
0.76𝜆𝑠𝑑 + 0.92

4.8 Moment Capacity of Steel Beams under Wet Concrete Only

An important final check of the beam is to consider its capacity to support the wet weight of concrete alone.
Where studs are welded through the sheeting and ribs are orientated perpendicular to the beam span lateral
restraint of the top flange can be assumed. Typically, this means that secondary beams can be assumed to
be fully laterally restrained under a temporary wet weight of the concrete load. Where the ribbing runs
parallel or is discontinuous the beam must be designed based on its effective length in accordance with
AS4100.

5 COMPOSITE BEAM DESIGN FOR SLS

Section 5 will cover the deflection of a simply supported and continuous beam under uniformly distributed
loads. It is assumed that the reader can adapt the methods shown below for alternate loadings.

5.1 Simply Supported beams

For a simply supported beam the deflection under a uniformly distributed load:

5𝑤𝑠∗ 𝐿4
𝛥=
384𝐸𝐼𝑥
𝑤𝑠∗ = 𝑤𝑤𝑒𝑡 + 𝑤𝑠𝑑𝑙 + 𝜑𝑐 𝑤𝐿𝐿
𝜑𝑐 = 𝐿𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

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 5.1.1 Unpropped Construction Deflection
5.1.1.1 Wet weight of Concrete
The deflection of an unpropped beam due to the wet weight of concrete is the first check in verifying the
deflection criteria. Since the beam is unpropped the instantaneous deflection is based on the stiffness of the
steel beam only.

∗
5𝑤𝑤𝑒𝑡 𝐿4
∆𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 =
384𝐸𝐼𝑥
𝐼𝑥 = 𝐼𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚

5.1.1.2 Short-term Deflection

Additional short-term due to Wsdl (partitions, services, finishes, etc) is calculated based on the stiffness of the
composite section.
∗
5𝑤𝑠𝑑𝑙 𝐿4
∆𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡−𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 =
384𝐸𝐼𝑥
𝐼𝑥 = 𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

The second moment area of a composite section is calculated using the modular transformation method.

𝐸𝑠
𝑛= − 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝐸𝑐

5.1.1.3 Long-term Deflection

5.1.1.3.1 Deflection due to Creep
To calculate the long-term deflection the long-term creep and shrinkage effects need to be accounted for.
The effective concrete modulus due to creep is calculated using the following formula (cl. 3.10.3.3)

𝐸𝑒𝑓.𝑐𝑐 = 𝐸𝑐 /(1 + 𝜙𝑐𝑐 )

𝐸𝑐 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔′ 𝑠 𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑡 28 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠
Φcc = Creep coefficient calculated from AS3600 − 2018

The component of deflection due to creep is the difference between the long-term deflection based on the
modified modulus and the short-term deflection.

∆𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑝 = ∆𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔−𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 (𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑝) − ∆𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡−𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚

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 ∗ ∗
5(𝑤𝑤𝑒𝑡 + 𝑤𝑠𝑑𝑙 )𝐿4
∆𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔−𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 (𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑝) =
384𝐸𝐼𝑥

𝐼𝑥 = 𝐼𝑒𝑓.𝑐𝑐

5.1.1.3.2 Additional deflection due to Shrinkage

Shrinkage generally has the effect of increasing deflections. The reason this occurs is due to a moment
induced by the shrinkage of the concrete located eccentrically from the section centroid. The effective long-
term modulus due to shrinkage can be calculated using the below formula (cl 3.10.3.4)

𝐸𝑒𝑓.𝑐𝑔 = 𝐸𝑐 /(1 + 0.55𝜙𝑐𝑐 )

The axial force due to shrinkage can be calculated using Hooke’s law.

𝑁𝑐𝑠 = ℎ𝑐 𝑏𝐸𝑒𝑓.𝑐𝑠 𝜀𝑐𝑠.𝑒𝑓

𝑏 = 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑏𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ.
𝜀𝑐𝑠.𝑒𝑓 = 𝜀𝑐𝑠𝑒 + 𝜀𝑐𝑠𝑑 − 𝐷𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝐴𝑆3600 − 2018

This force can be converted to a moment by multiplying the force due to shrinkage by the lever arm.

𝑀𝑠 = 𝑁𝑐𝑠 ∗ 𝑙
The shrinkage deflection can then be calculated via the following equation for a simply supported beam.

𝑀𝐿2
∆𝑠ℎ𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑎𝑔𝑒 =
8𝐸𝐼𝑥
𝐼𝑥 = 𝐼𝑒𝑓.𝑐𝑔

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5.1.1.3.3 Deflection due to Live Load
The deflection due to live load for a simply-supported beam can be calculated using the equation provided
in section 5.1 using the correct live load combination factor (refer to AS1170)

∗
5(𝜑𝑐 𝑤𝐿𝐿 )𝐿4
𝛥𝐿𝐿 =
384𝐸𝐼𝑥
𝐼𝑥 = 𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

5.1.1.3.4 Total Long-term Deflection

The total long-term deflection for a simply-supported unpropped beam is the sum of the instantaneous
deflection, creep, shrinkage deflection and live load deflection.

𝛥 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔−𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = ∆𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 + ∆𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑝 + ∆𝑠ℎ𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑎𝑔𝑒 + 𝛥𝐿𝐿

It is important to note that the stiffness in the above equations assumes full shear interaction (𝛽 =1). AS2327
cl 3.10.3.2 provides equations to determine the additional deflection caused by incomplete interaction for
propped and unpropped construction. For unpropped construction the following equation is provided:

𝜐 𝑁 𝑣𝑠
= 1 + 0.5 (1 − 𝛽𝑐 ) ( − 1)
𝜐𝑐 𝑁𝑓 𝜐𝑐
𝑣𝑠 = 𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑣𝑐 = 𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝛽𝑐 = 𝐶𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑝 𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑁 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑑
𝑁𝑓 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

5.1.1.4 Stress
Another stress design check is required on the steel beam section. The moments used in the design check
are based on working loads (i.e. not factored). The bending stresses can be checked using the following
equation:

𝑀𝑦
𝜎=
𝐼

5.1.2 Vibration
The further serviceability check involves determining if the structural system is sensitive to vibration. AS2327-
2017 outlines a method based on SCI P384. This design guideline will not go into depth on vibration but rather
highlight some rules of thumb available to designers to quickly determine the natural frequency of the floor

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beams. With an understanding of the natural frequency of floor beams, it can be determined if the system is
sensitive to vibrations and if further checks are required.
Steel composite beams are more susceptible to vibration issues because they are generally lighter than a
concrete alternative. The natural frequency of a system can be calculated using the following equation.

1 𝑘
𝑓𝑛 = √ [𝐻𝑧]
2𝜋 𝑚

The above equation highlights the importance of mass and stiffness in the determination of the natural
frequency.

By calculating a maximum displacement including a small percentage of live load (~10%-30%) we can
approximate the natural frequency of a simply-supported composite beam using the below equation. The
below equation is a rearrangement of the general formula provided above.

18
𝑓𝑛 = ≥ 4 𝐻𝑧
√𝛿𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑒

Once the fundamental frequency is known we can compare this to known forcing (excitation) frequencies.
As the forcing (excitation) frequencies approach the fundamental frequency resonance will occur, and
displacement amplification will also occur. The below graph highlights, with varying damping ratios, the
potential dynamic amplification which can occur as β approaches 1. Where fp is the forcing frequency and fn
is the fundamental frequency. For structural systems with a small damping ratio, say 1.5% of critical, a
dynamic amplification factor as high as 50 can be obtained. This means that the displacement under G +
10%Q, which is mobilised by a single person walking on the floor slab can be amplified by 50 times. An
increase in displacement subsequently results in an increase in stresses in the floor beams and could lead to
fatigue and potentially collapse.

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A forcing frequency that is commonly checked is footfall and studies show it has a range between 1.6hz to
2.2hz. The vibration of a structure is often deemed not to be critical (for footfall) if the determined natural
frequency is greater than 4 Hz. This is not a rule but rather a guideline as forcing frequencies of 2, 3 and 4
times the mean footfall frequency (say 2 Hz) can cause an off-resonance response and thus dynamic
amplification.

5.1.3 Propped Construction

Propped construction has its advantages including reduced instantaneous deflection and thus total
deflection. This may allow the selection of a shallower or lighter beam if serviceability is governing the design.
Despite this, propping in recent times has become unfavourable to contractors primarily due to the cost of
props and effect to program. Another thing to note with propped construction is that the component of
deflection attributed to creep will increase dramatically and this should be considered in long-term deflection
calculations.

5.2 Continuous Beams

This guideline will briefly cover the simplified method for calculating the deflection of continuous composite
beams. For continuous composite beams with the concrete flanges above the steel section and where the
ratio of adjacent continuous spans between supports is at least 0.6, the effect of cracking is considered by
using the flexural stiffness (Es, Icr) over 15% of the span on each side of the internal support, and as the un-
cracked stiffness (Es, Iuncr) elsewhere. Icr can conservatively be taken as the steel beam stiffness however a
more accurate calculation of Icr could incorporate the steel reinforcing.

Following a similar method as outlined in section 5.1 a simple frame model in Spacegass or similar software
with stiffnesses modified as indicated in figure 3.10.3.2(A) can be used to determine the various components
of deflection.

Additional deflection of continuous beams can occur if the steel beam reaches yield. Factors are outlined in
cl 3.10.3.2 depending on if yielding occurs under wet concrete or after composite action has been achieved.
These factors are applied to the negative moment at the support where yielding has occurred and this in turn
will increase bending moments in the positive moment regions.

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5.3 Secondary Effects

Unlike statically determinate beams where shrinkage effects only cause increased curvature and deflection
a continuous beam will observe additional bending moments because of shrinkage. These secondary
moments can be in the order of 20% of the total design moment which is significant and should not be
ignored. Eurocode 4 states that where Class 1 and 2 cross-sections are used in which no allowance for lateral-
torsional buckling is necessary the secondary effects due to shrinkage can be neglected in the verification of
ultimate limit states.

6 DESIGN OF COMPOSITE SLABS

6.1 Types of profiles

There are many suppliers now who research, develop and supply cold-formed sheeting as permanent
formwork. The following are some suppliers in Australia who develop the sheeting:
1. Lysaght – suppliers of Bondek profiles
2. Stramit – suppliers of Condeck profiles
3. Fielders – suppliers of Kingfloor profiles
There are two common profiles that are being developed; trapezoidal sections and re-entrant profiles.

Trapezoidal sections are less common in Australia. If they have deep corrugations, they can span longer
distances without propping. However, they do not have a profile that prevents vertical delamination between
the sheet and the hardened concrete.

6.1.1 Lysaght Bondek (Re-entrant Profile)

Bondek was the first steel composite tray on the Australian market. Hence it is sometimes used as a generic
term for steel composite slab trays.

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 6.1.2 Stramit Condek (Re-entrant Profile)

6.1.3 Fielders RF55 (Re-entrant Profile)

Fielders RF55 profile is similar to Lysaght Bondek profile.

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 6.1.4 Fielders KF70 (Trapezoidal Profile)
Fielders also have a profile which is essentially trapezoidal but has re-entrant secondary ribs on top of the
primary ribs.

6.1.5 Fielders CF210 (Trapezoidal Profile)

This profile provides long-spanning abilities for both wet and hardened concrete. It is designed to sit on the
bottom flange of a steel beam so that the overall floor depth can be reduced despite the deep slabs, (this
may reduce the beam effectiveness as a composite beam).

6.2 Comparisons

The advantages of a composite slab that utilise sheeting are that the concrete cover below the reinforcement
of a conventional slab – which does not contribute to its cracked strength is significantly reduced. The extent
of the reduction depends on the height of the centre of gravity of the tray profile above the underside of the
tray. This distance is usually smaller for the re-entrant profiles than the trapezoidal profiles.
On the other hand, the symmetry of the trapezoidal profiles provides better bending strength and therefore
better-spanning capabilities under the weight of wet concrete and may require less propping.

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The other obvious benefit is the sheeting can be used in the permanent case as bottom reinforcement
assuming exposure classifications and durability requirements can be met.

6.3 Cold-Formed to AS4600 (Non-composite slab)

In the absence of supplier span tables, the design of permanent metal decking to support wet concrete is to
be in accordance with the cold-formed steel standard AS4600.

6.3.1 Section properties

Determining section properties in accordance with AS4600 may result in parts of the cross-section being
deemed not to contribute to the properties because of local buckling in compression. These areas are
considered unstiffened.
These areas are most likely in the flat bottom section of re-entrant profiles which will be in tension under
positive bending but in compression over internal supports.
For this reason, the profile may have different effective cross-sectional properties under positive and
negative bending. Some suppliers stipulate different second-moment of area values for positive and negative
bending for this reason.
In addition to localised buckling, the cross-sectional properties will be affected by the indentations in the
profile. These indentations are to enhance shear interlock along with the profile interface however AS2327-
2017 requires that these indentations be deducted from the cross-section. Alternatively, AS2327-2017 allows
the effective cross-sectional properties to be determined by test in accordance with Appendix J of the
standard.

6.4 Composite Slab Design

In composite slab design, as with beams, there is a need to consider the construction stage and the composite
stage. At the construction stage, the profiled steel sheeting acts as shuttering. The profiled sheeting must
carry its own weight, the wet concrete and the construction loads. In the composite stage, the slab is loaded
with its own weight, the floor finishes and the live load.
The composite slab is almost always continuous because the profiled sheeting is provided in two-span lengths
and the concrete is cast on the sheeting without joints. However, very often it is assumed that it is simply
supported. If this assumption is used, it is important to provide reinforcement for crack control above internal
supports.
The design resistance of the composite slab against longitudinal shear is carried out by the semi-empirical
method called the m-k method. The method is based on two empirical factors, m and k. The design values of
empirical factors m and k are based on slab tests and are provided by the manufacturer of the sheeting.
The partial connection method is an alternative to the m-k method. This method also relies on tests on the
composite slab to estimate the shear connection. Both can be applied in cases where the longitudinal shear
behaviour is ductile. However, if the longitudinal behaviour is non-ductile, only the m-k method is permitted.

6.5 Construction Loads

A construction live load of 1-1.5kPa is made in designing formwork to allow for the weight of personnel,
equipment and potential stockpiling of materials. In addition, AS2327-2017 requires that the profiled steel

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sheeting can support 1kN point loads in the edge pans, and 2kN point load elsewhere on an area of 0.1m x
0.1m.

6.6 Achieving FRL of Composite Slabs

Most steel sheeting suppliers provide design tables for determining the reinforcement and slab thicknesses
required to achieve various FRLs.

7 DESIGN OF COMPOSITE COLUMNS

7.1 Composite Columns

Steel columns in multi-storey buildings are susceptible to fire and thus need treatments to protect them. This
is often provided by encasement in concrete. Until the 1950s, it was normal practice to use a wet mix of low-
strength concrete and neglect the contribution of the concrete to the strength and stability of the column.
In more recent times it has become clear that cost savings can be achieved by providing higher quality
concrete and utilising it in strength calculations. The design of composite columns is similar to the design of
regular reinforced concrete columns. Section 4 of AS2327-2017 outlines the method for designing composite
columns it will not be covered in detail in this guideline.

7.1.1 CFT – Concrete Filled Tube

Concrete-filled tubes are an efficient alternative to traditional reinforced concrete columns. CFTs typically
consist of a steel outer tube and a concrete core which is often conventionally reinforced. Some of the
advantages and disadvantages of concrete-filled columns are provided below.

Advantages
• Concrete filled tubes provide a permanent formwork
• Greater capacity compared to the similar size of conventional reinforced concrete column
• Due to uniform confinement of the concrete core, additional capacity can be achieved ~10-15%.

Disadvantages
• Typically, more expensive when compared to reinforced concrete columns due to the structural steel
component
• More complex floor connections
• Steel tubes are more expensive than off-shelf steel sections.

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7.2 Method of Analysis

7.2.1 Steel Classification

For composite steel columns, the steel section shall be symmetrical, fabricated from steel with a maximum
yield stress of 690 MPa, and have a wall thickness such that the plate element slenderness (e) is less than
the yield slenderness limit (ey) given in Tables 4.1.1.6(A) and 4.1.1.6(B). Concrete shall be of normal density
and strength and meet the requirements of AS 1379 or NZS 3104. Reinforcement shall meet the requirements
of AS/NZS 4671.

7.2.2 Steel contribution Factor

The steel contribution factor is a parameter that determines the contribution of the steel section to the
overall composite column load-carrying capacity. The contribution factor can be calculated as follows:

0.2 < 𝛼𝑠 ≤ 0.9

Where

𝛷𝐴𝑠 𝑓𝑦
𝛼𝑠 =
𝑁𝑢𝑠

ɸ = capacity factor (given in Table 1.4.3 in AS2327-2017)

As = cross-sectional area of the structural steel section
Nus = nominal section capacity of a concentrically loaded composite compression
member determined in accordance with Clause 4.1.2.1
(a) Where alphas < 0.2, refer to AS 3600 or NZS 3101.
(b) Where alphas > 0.9, refer to AS 4100 or NZS 3404.

7.2.3 Relative slenderness

This clause applies only to members where the plate slenderness (e) is less than the yield limit (ey)
specified in Table 4.1.1.6(A) and Table 4.1.1.6(B), such that local buckling effects shall be neglected.
The effect of local buckling shall be neglected for a steel section fully encased in accordance with the
following requirements:

(a) For fully encased steel sections, at least a minimum cover of reinforced concrete shall be provided
to ensure the safe transmission of bond forces, for the protection of the steel against corrosion and
spalling of concrete.

(b) The concrete cover to a flange of a fully encased concrete profile shall not be less than 40 mm, not
less than 1/6th of the breadth of the flange b/6.

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 (c) Cover to reinforcement and spacing of lateral ties (stirrups) shall be in accordance with AS 3600 or
NZS 3101.

7.3 Types of Steel Composite Columns

There are many different types and shapes of steel composite columns used in the construction industry. The
figure below shows the most common types:

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 (a) Concrete filled tubes without reinforcement

(b) Concrete filled tubes with reinforcement

(c) Encased steel sections

7.3.1 Embedded Steel Composite Column

The plastic resistance of an encased steel section or a concrete-filled rectangular or square hollow section is
given by the sum of the resistances of the components as follows:
Nus = Asefy + ccAcfc + Asfsy 4.1.2.3(1)

where
Ac = cross sectional areas of concrete
As = cross sectional areas of reinforcing steel
Ase = effective area of structural steel section
fy = yield strength of the steel section measured parallel to Nu
fc = characteristic compressive strength of the concrete
fsy = yield strength of the reinforcing steel
 = capacity factor for steel given in Table 1.4.3
c = capacity factor for unconfined concrete at ultimate limit state, 0.6

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c = strength coefficient for concrete:
= 0.85 for fully and partially concrete encased steel sections

7.3.2 Concrete Filled Tube

(a) For rectangular filled members (cl. 4.1.2.1)

(b) Circular filled members (cl.4.1.2.2)

Where:

8 RECOMMENDED SOFTWARES

8.1 Companel – Liberty Steel

Can design only composite beams. Limitations of the software are as follows:
• Does not permit consideration of continuous beams.
• Does not check longitudinal shear.
• Does not check composite slabs.

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8.2 KingFlor Design Suite (KingBeam and KingSlab)

• Allows the use of Kingflor profiles which are being more popular than conventional Bondek/RF55.
• Kingslab designs slabs to AS2327-2017.
• Like Companel does not consider longitudinal shear.

8.3 RAPT

• RAPT can be used for the design of composite slabs as some profiles can be specified as bottom
reinforcement in the user-defined metal decking tab.

8.4 Oasys GSA

• Oasys GSA was developed by ARUP’s R&D division to assess vibration sensitive structures. It can be
used to assess steel composite slabs and is the software of choice.

8.5 TATA Steel FireSoft

• Design of steel composite column

• Uses EC4 only
• Does not allow greater than 50MPa concrete
• Does not allow Australian section sizes or custom section sizes.

9 REFERENCES

• AS2327-2003 – Composite Structures – Composite steel-concrete construction in buildings

(Superseded)
• AS2327-2017 - Composite Structures – Composite steel-concrete construction in buildings
• AS4600-2018 – Cold-formed steel structures
• Eurocode 4 – Design of composite steel and concrete structures
• Composite Structures according to Eurocode 4 – Darko Dujmovic, Brois Androic, Ivan Lukacevic
• ETIA – Design & Construction Workshop to AS2327-2017

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