Geo-spatial Information Science

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Group delay and phase delay in GNSS systems

Reuben Berry, Philip G. Mattos & Izzet Kale

To cite this article: Reuben Berry, Philip G. Mattos & Izzet Kale (2013) Group delay and
phase delay in GNSS systems, Geo-spatial Information Science, 16:3, 210-219, DOI:
10.1080/10095020.2013.834111

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© 2013 Wuhan University

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Geo-spatial Information Science, 2013
Vol. 16, No. 3, 210–219, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10095020.2013.834111

Group delay and phase delay in GNSS systems

Reuben BERRY a, Philip G. MATTOSb and Izzet KALEa*
a
Applied DSP and VLSI Research Group, Department of Electronics, Network and Communications Engineering,
University of Westminster, London, W1W 6UW, UK; bSTMicroelectronics R&D Ltd, Bristol, BS32 4SQ, UK
(Received 11 February 2013; final version received 16 June 2013)

GNSS signals have previously been modulated using binary phase shift keying but this modulation scheme is being
replaced by binary offset carrier (BOC) modulation. Research has considered how the BOC signals might be affected
differently when passed through a surface acoustic wave (SAW) filter. The concern has been that because of the split
spectrum nature of the BOC signals, the upper and lower side-lobes will be delayed significantly differently. This was
suggested because SAW filters have nonlinear phase characteristics and therefore different frequencies are delayed
differently. It was suggested that this difference in delay will result in greater distortion of the correlation triangle.
A delay magnification effect was also mentioned when analyzing the delay of a BOC signal. It was not understood why
the theoretical delay calculations did not match up with the actual results in both hardware and simulation. This paper
clarifies some of the confusion and explains why the “delay magnification” applies to phase delay but not group delay.
This paper also takes a look at how the code phase delay can vary with frequency and correlator spacing as a result of
the SAW filter properties.
Keywords: group delay; phase delay; SAW filter; non-linear phase; GNSS delay compensation

1. A simple sinusoid model carrier and information signal sinusoid are clearly visible
on the plots.
To explain the delay magnification idea proposed in Ref.
Figure 2 shows the two sinusoids f1 and f2 . It clearly
(1), we start with a model of two sinusoids being passed
shows that the phases of the two sinusoids start aligned
through a filter. These two sinusoids are generated by
but gradually separate due to the difference in frequency.
multiplying a carrier sinusoid with a signal sinusoid and
If the sinusoid of frequency f2 was delayed by a
are the input to a filter:
small amount, we would see that the envelope of the sig-
nal would be delayed much more. Let the filter have no
xðtÞ ¼ cosð2pfc tÞ cosð2pfs t Þ ð1Þ delay for frequency f 1 but have a phase delay of 16 ns
at f2 . Figure 3 shows the output of the filter yðtÞ. This
where x(t) is the input, fs is the frequency of the infor- shows that the envelope of the signal has been delayed
mation signal which for our purposes is assumed to be a by approximately 250 ns even though the phase delay of
simple sinusoid, and fc is the frequency of the carrier. the filter for f2 was only 16 ns. This demonstrates the
The input to the filter is equivalent to two sinusoids idea of delay magnification, as proposed in Ref. (1),
added together: where a small delay results in a much larger delay.
We have already used the term “phase delay” in the
xðtÞ ¼ cosð2pf1 t Þ þ cosð2pf2 tÞ ð2Þ previous paragraph so we had better also define it here.
The delay of a filter can be measured in terms of the
where f1 ¼ fc  fs and f2 ¼ fc þ fs . “phase delay” but more commonly the “group delay” is
In the original analysis in Ref. (1), when these two used instead. Both the phase and the group delays are
sinusoids (f1 and f2 ) were passed through a SAW filter, calculated using the phase of the filter. The equations
the sinusoids were delayed according to the group delay describing the different delay definitions were taken from
of the SAW filter at the two frequencies. Because of this, Ref. (2) and are defined here as:
any slight difference in group delay between the two fre-
quencies results in a much greater delay in the informa- h
sp ¼ ð3Þ
tion signal sinusoid. This effect is demonstrated below. 2pf
Figure 1 shows the input to the filter xðt Þ. In this
example, fs ¼ 1 MHz and fc ¼ 30 MHz. This results in dh
f1 ¼ 29 MHz and f2 ¼ 31 MHz. Although these are not sg ¼ ð4Þ
2pdf
GPS frequencies, they were chosen so that both the

*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]

Ó 2013 Wuhan University

 Geo-spatial Information Science 211

Figure 1. Filter input signal xðtÞ. Figure 3. Output of the filter yðtÞ

y0 ð t Þ ¼ x0 t  sp ð7Þ

Substituting for x0 using Equation (5) gives:

y0 ðt Þ ¼ cosð2pf0 ðt  sp ÞÞ ð8Þ

After substituting for sp using Equation (3), Equation

(8) above is equivalent to Equation (6). If one were to
apply the group delay value sg to the input signal x0 ðt Þ
in the same way as has just been done for the phase
delay value sp then the equation for y0 ðt Þ would no
longer be equivalent to Equation (6). This analysis
explains why group delay does not apply to a pure
sinusoid.
Figure 2. Plot of sinusoids with frequencies f1 and f2 . If it is the case that group delay does not apply to a
continuous sinusoid signal then how does it apply to
where sp is the phase delay of the filter at frequency f , signals? Ref. (3) mentions that group delay defines the
sg is the group delay of the filter at frequency f , and h is delay of the envelope of a signal. To explain this in
the phase of the filter at frequency f . more detail, we construct a new input signal xe ðt Þ for the
It is important to know the difference between these filter input. This time this signal is a sinusoid shaped by
two definitions of delay measurement and how they an envelope signal envðtÞ. The equation for the filter
affect a signal differently. First, we look at how a pure input xe ðt Þ is shown below:
sinusoid is affected by these two delay definitions and
show that group delay does not apply to such a signal. xe ðt Þ ¼ cosð2pfe tÞenvðtÞ ð9Þ
We start with the filter input sinusoid x0 ðt Þ:
For this signal, both the phase delay and the group
x0 ðtÞ ¼ cosð2pf0 tÞ ð5Þ delay values need to be applied when passing xe ðt Þ
through a filter. The sinusoid is delayed by the phase
Let h0 be the phase of the filter at frequency f0. delay and the envelope envðtÞ is delayed by the group
Therefore, the output of the filter y0 ðt Þ is: delay. This results in the output of the filter ye ðt Þ
becoming:
y0 ðt Þ ¼ cosð2pf0 t þ h0 Þ ð6Þ
ye ðt Þ ¼ cosð2pfe ðt  sp ÞÞenvðt  sg Þ ð10Þ
We know that, however we define the phase and
group delays to affect the sinusoid input x0 ðt Þ, the resul- where sp is the phase delay of the filter at frequency fe,
tant equations for the filter output y0 ðt Þ must be equiva- and sg is the group delay of the filter at fe . Equation (10)
lent to Equation (6). For phase delay, the sinusoid is is only an approximation if the group delay varies over
delayed by the value sp . This results in the output of the the range of frequencies that are included in the
filter y0 ðt Þ being defined as: spectrum of ye ðt Þ. However, Equation (10) is a close
212 R. BERRY et al.

approximation to the actual response of the filter if the signals but it defines the delay of the envelope of a
group delay varies only very slightly over the frequency signal. Equation (10) also shows that the phase delay
range of ye ðt Þ. If the group delay of the filter varies defines the steady-state response of a filter.
greatly with frequency then the bandwidth of the signal
xe ðt Þ can be reduced until the changes in group delay are
small enough to be neglected. 2. Modeling using spread-spectrum signals
In the case of a linear phase filter, the values for the Up to this point, the signals used in the analysis have
phase delay sp are identical to the group delay sg values been useful for the initial explanation of delay but they
for all frequencies. In this case, even though the phase are inadequate for the analysis of how the real signals
and group delay definitions are not equivalent, the group and the correlation peaks will be affected by a SAW
delay values sg could be applied in the same way as the filter in the front end of a receiver. The signals used
phase delay values sp to get the same results. However, previously have consisted of pure sinusoids meaning that
one must be cautious because, in the case of a nonlinear they are continuous signals with no transients and there-
phase filter, the group and phase delay values are not the fore their spectra contained only two frequencies. Also
same and therefore, if applied incorrectly the calculations the signals previously used carried no real information.
will not match the measured or simulated results. GPS signals have a spread spectrum meaning that,
We now return to our original model of two their spectra do not contain just a few frequencies but,
sinusoids being passed through a filter as described by they use a range of frequencies to represent the signals.
Equations (11) and (12). The output of the filter yðtÞ is: In order to be able to model such signals, the modeling
was done in MATLAB. This allows the effects that a
SAW filter has on the signals and their correlation peaks
yðtÞ ¼ cosð2pf1 t þ h1 Þ þ cosð2pf2 t þ h2 Þ ð11Þ to be observed. For the analysis, both BPSK and BOC
(1, 1) signals were simulated separately by being passed
where h1 is the phase of the filter at f1 and h2 is the through a model of a SAW filter. The first SAW filter
phase of the filter at f2 . Therefore, in terms of the modeled was a B3521 GPS filter from EPCOS.
original carrier and information signal, the output of This shows whether or not the BOC(1, 1) signals will
the filter is: be delayed differently or will have a different distortion
of the correlation triangles when compared with the
    BPSK signals.
h1 þ h2 h2  h1
yðtÞ ¼ cos 2pfc t þ cos 2pfs t þ The model of the signals and SAW filter calculates
2 2
the response of the filter for 1 ms of signal, this being
ð12Þ the length of a complete chipping sequence for the C/A
code. The signals were first generated in the time domain
This equation can be compared with Equation (10) and then passed through a model of the SAW filter by
where the sinusoid in (10) is the carrier signal in (12) multiplying the spectrum of the signals in the frequency
and the envelope function in (10) is the information domain with the frequency response of the SAW filter.
signal in (12). It should be noted that the carrier signal is
The data provided by the manufacturer for the SAW
the cosine with the fc term and the information signal is
filter contained the magnitude and phase response of the
the cosine with the fs term.
filter in 312.5 kHz steps. Because the simulation length
In Equation (10), the group delay sg of the filter
is 1 ms, the points in the frequency domain are spaced
delays the envelope signal envðtÞ. In Equation (12), the
every 1 kHz meaning that the SAW filter data had to be
information signal is equivalent to the envelope signal in
Equation (10). Therefore, the group delay sg of the filter
can be found from the phase of the information signal in
equation (12) and is defined as:

h2  h1
sg ¼  ð13Þ
2p2fs

We know that 2fs is the difference in frequency

between f1 and f2 which is equivalent to df . We also
know that h2  h1 is equivalent to dh. Therefore,
Equation (13) is equivalent to Equation (4). This
confirms the validity of Equation (10) where the group
delay defines the delay of the envelope of a signal.
So far, we have demonstrated that the “delay
magnification” effect applies to phase delay. We have
shown that group delay does not apply to continuous Figure 4. Frequency spectrum of a GPS BPSK signal.
 Geo-spatial Information Science 213

up-sampled and interpolated using a first-order hold to domain using an IFFT. After this the signals are demod-
have data points every 1 kHz. ulated by multiplying them with the carrier signal. And
Once the signals had been passed through the SAW finally, the signals are correlated. The correlation is
filter by means of multiplication in the frequency achieved by multiplication in the frequency domain as
domain, the signals are converted back to the time this requires less processing than direct correlation in the
time domain.

Figure 5. Frequency spectrum of BOC(1, 1) signal. Figure 8. Close-up of correlation triangle for BPSK.

Figure 6. Correlation response of BPSK signal. Figure 9. Correlation response of BOC(1, 1) signal.

Figure 7. Correlation triangle of BPSK signal. Figure 10. Correlation triangle of BOC(1, 1) signal.
214 R. BERRY et al.

baseband frequencies. This was done by shifting the

filter frequencies down by the carrier frequency of
1575.42 MHz. Figure 13 shows the resultant impulse
response which is effectively what the original signals
will be filtered by at the output of the receiver. So,
instead of modulating the signal by the carrier, filtering
it through the SAW filter, and demodulating the signal.
All these steps can be replaced by simply convolving the
signal with the impulse response shown in Figure 13.
Both BPSK and BOC(1, 1) signals are filtered by the
same effective impulse response and Figure 13 shows
that split correlation peaks cannot practically exist. This
is because there is no significant secondary peak in the
impulse response. More importantly, the ripples in the
impulse response are mostly filtered out because the cor-
Figure 11. Close-up of correlation triangle for BOC(1, 1). relation triangles of both BPSK and BOC(1, 1) signals
are much wider than the length of the ripples.
Figures 4 and 5 show the frequency spectrums of the To verify that this effective impulse response of the
BPSK and BOC(1, 1) signals, respectively. The following system results in an accurate model, both ways of
Figures 6–11 show the correlation responses for both simulating the system were done side-by-side. The two
BPSK and BOC(1, 1) signals after they have been passed correlation peaks calculated in each way were subtracted
through a SAW filter and demodulated.
By contrasting Figures 8 and 11 it can be seen that
there is no noticeable difference in the way the correla-
tion triangles have been distorted. The most significant
effect is the smoothing of the peaks due to the limited
bandwidth of the filter. Both correlation triangles look
symmetrical. The maximum values of the correlation tri-
angles occur at 38.40 ns (484 samples) for both signals
showing no difference in delay.
Another method to calculate the delay of the
correlation triangles was used. The two sample points of
the correlation triangle that have a value half that of the
peak value were found. Then the time values of the two
samples were averaged resulting in a delay of 465 sam-
ples for the BPSK signal and 464 samples for the BOC
(1, 1) signal. This delay is about 1.6 ns smaller than the
delay of the peak value. This shows that the SAW filter
not only delays the correlation peak, but it also distorts
Figure 12. Impulse response of SAW filter.
the shape of the correlation triangle. However, the distor-
tion is not much different for the BOC(1, 1) signals as it
is for the GPS signals.

3. Impulse response analysis

In order to understand more fully what is going on with
the SAW filter and its effect on the signals, it is useful
to look at its impulse response in the time domain.
Figure 12 shows the impulse response of the GPS
narrowband SAW filter which was calculated using an
IFFT. The figure shows that the peak of the impulse
response (at 40.6 ns) is very close to the delay of the
correlation peak observed in simulation (38.40 ns) when
passing BPSK and BOC(1, 1) signals.
The effective impulse response of the system that the
signal sees after it has been modulated, filtered, demodu-
lated, and low-pass filtered can be constructed by
shifting the frequency points of the filter down to Figure 13. Effective impulse response of system.
 Geo-spatial Information Science 215

one from another to find the error. This error was found the signals at each stage in their modulation, filtering
to be approximately 8  105 relative to the actual value and demodulation. The example given in this section
at any given point. After zooming in on the errors, it uses low frequencies to aid explanation, but the process
was found that the errors were oscillatory and were at a is still the same for the actual GPS frequencies.
frequency twice the carrier frequency. This shows that Figure 14 shows the spectrum of a 10 Hz carrier
the first way of simulating the system that modulates the signal. Figure 15 shows the spectrum of the baseband
signal, filters, and then demodulates it, does not com- signal being transmitted. For both of these signals, they
pletely filter out the 2fc frequencies. This is because no have a purely positive and real spectrum and so only the
special filtering was used after demodulation. However, magnitude is shown.
when the demodulated signal is convolved with the Figure 16 shows the transmitted signal that is
flipped version of the original signal, this filters out generated by multiplying the baseband signal with the
the high frequencies. Because of this, it was assumed carrier. In the frequency domain, the two signals are
that the demodulated signal did not need to be low-pass convolved resulting in the spectra in Figure 16. Again
filtered first. the spectrum of the transmitted signal is purely positive
and real.
Figure 17 shows the spectrum of the filter’s response.
4. Modeling the system at baseband This time both real and imaginary parts are shown on
This section goes about to explain why it is possible to the same figure. When the transmitted signal is passed
model the system only at baseband frequencies rather through the filter it results in the signal shown in
than at RF frequencies. Modeling at baseband reduces Figure 18.
the sampling rates required and hence reduces computa- The spectrum of the modulated and filtered signal
tion time. To explain, we first look at what happens to shown in Figure 18 is next demodulated. This results in

Figure 14. Spectrum of carrier signal. Figure 16. Spectrum of transmitted signal.

Figure 15. Spectrum of baseband signal. Figure 17. Spectrum of filter response.
216 R. BERRY et al.

Figure 18. Spectrum of filtered signal. Figure 20. Spectrum of low-pass filtered demodulated signal.

One thing that has not been mentioned yet is the

carrier phase. If the phase of the carrier being used to
demodulate is different from the phase of the transmitted
carrier after filtering, then there will be gain errors in the
received signal. For example, if the phase of the carriers
had a phase shift of 90° between them, then after multi-
plying the resultant signal would have no DC component
(i.e. no signal). One option would be to leave the equiva-
lent filter as having a complex response. This would
result in an I and Q component signal which would then
require two parallel convolutions. However, we are only
interested in the magnitude response of the correlation.
Therefore, we can align the carrier signals and have only
one resultant correlation signal.
Figure 19. Spectrum of demodulated signal. In the previous way (time-domain approach) of
modeling the system at RF frequencies, we can align the
demodulating carrier with the filtered carrier by subtract-
the demodulated signal in Figure 19. Before the signal is ing the phase of the filter at the carrier frequency from
correlated, it is first low-pass filtered to remove the the phase of the demodulating carrier. In our equivalent
signal replicas at 2fc (20 Hz). In the MATLAB model of baseband filter, this can be achieved by adjusting the
the system, the correlation acts as a low-pass filter, hence phase of the original filter before using it to create the
this step is not included as the correlation implicitly does baseband filter. By subtracting the phase of the original
the high-frequency component filtering. However, filter at the carrier frequency from all the frequency
Figure 20 shows the spectrum of the demodulated signal points of the filter, the carrier phases are now aligned.
after it has been low-pass filtered.
Instead of having to modulate the signal before
filtering and then demodulating the signal before low- 5. GPS and GLONASS filter
pass filtering, all these steps can be replaced by making Previously, the SAW filter used was a GPS narrowband
a new filter. This filter takes the baseband signal in filter. Next, we look at a GPS/GLONASS filter that has
Figure 15 and produces a signal identical to Figure 20. a wide enough pass-band to let both signals through.
This is done by modulating the filter response in the GPS is centered at 1575.42 MHz and GLONASS has fre-
time-domain with the sinusoid carrier signal. Afterwards, quencies centered at 1602 MHz. Although GLONASS
the filter response is low-pass filtered to remove the uses several channels with much smaller bandwidths
higher frequencies. than GPS, it was decided to use a GPS signal at
To avoid the need to modulate and low-pass filter the 1602 MHz instead for simplicity.
original filter’s response the equivalent filter is actually Figure 21 shows the correlation signal for BPSK
made in the frequency domain by shifting, flipping, con- signals at GPS and GLONASS frequencies. In Figure 22
jugating, and adding, thereby circumventing the need to are the correlation signals for BOC(1, 1) also at GPS and
sample at the high RF frequencies. GLONASS frequencies. There is no noticeable difference
 Geo-spatial Information Science 217

Figure 21. The peak of the correlation triangles for BPSK

signals. Figure 23. Impulse response of system for GPS frequencies.

Figure 22. Correlation response for BOC signals.

Figure 24. Impulse response of system for GLONASS

frequencies.
between the signals except a small scale factor between
GPS and GLONASS, which is highly likely due to the
different gains in the pass-band of the GPS/GLONASS
SAW filter. Also, the BOC signals obviously have
narrower peaks.
The peaks for the BPSK signals are at 17.2 ns for
GPS and 18.1 ns for GLONASS. The positions of the
peaks for the BOC signals are identical to those for
the BPSK signals. This difference in delay is due to the
difference in the group delay of the GPS/GLONASS
filter throughout its pass-band.
Next, we look at the impulse response of the system
for both GPS and GLONASS frequencies. Figure 23
shows the GPS impulse response. Figure 24 shows the
GLONASS impulse response.
The GLONASS impulse response explains the slight
hump in the right hand side of the correlation triangle.
This is due to the second but smaller peak in the impulse
response. The GPS impulse response does not have such
a large second peak. Again, the first peaks in the impulse Figure 25. Impulse response of GPS/GLONASS SAW filter.
218 R. BERRY et al.

responses correspond very closely to the delay of the 7. Conclusions

correlation peaks. And finally, Figure 25 shows the It was found and demonstrated that the delay magnifica-
impulse response of the SAW filter. tion mentioned in Ref. (1) does apply but only when
using the phase delay of the filter to calculate the signal
delay. Using MATLAB, models of realistic GNSS sig-
6. Correlator spacing and delay
nals passing through two types of SAW filters were
Because the SAW filter has nonlinear phase, the tested. This showed very little or no difference in the
symmetrical shape of the correlation peak is not delay of the correlation peaks of BPSK and BOC(1, 1)
maintained. The nonlinear phase results in a slightly signals. This was followed by the analysis of the impulse
nonsymmetric correlation peak. This means that the response of the SAW filters. The filters’ responses were
delay caused by the SAW filter varies with correlator converted to baseband to make the analysis of how the
spacing when two correlating arms are used. Note that signals are affected by the SAW filters easier. The effec-
the correlator spacing here is defined as the spacing tive impulse response of the system explained why split
between the early and late correlators used to find the correlation peaks do not occur.
center of the correlation triangle. Figure 26 is a plot of A GPS/GLONASS filter showed that, as expected,
the signal delay against correlator spacing. there was a small difference in delay between signals
Figure 26 shows that there is little difference in delay transmitted at GPS frequencies and signals transmitted at
between the BPSK signal and the BOC(1, 1) modulated the GLONASS frequencies. It was also shown that the
signal. The maximum difference in delay between the delay was not noticeably different for BPSK and BOC
two is about 0.2–0.3 ns for when the correlator spacing is (1, 1) signals.
about half a chip. This is of course assuming identical A comparison of delay vs. correlator spacing was
correlator spacings for both BPSK and BOC(1, 1). In undertaken for both BPSK and BOC(1, 1) signals passing
practice, a typical early to late correlator spacing for GPS through the GPS SAW filter. This revealed the impor-
BPSK signals is 1 chip (4). However, the BOC(1, 1) tance of considering correlator spacing and not just car-
correlator spacing will be much narrower due to the slope rier frequency when determining the actual code phase
of the main correlation peak being three times steeper (5). delay as seen by the tracking loops. For a given corre-
This analysis of delay vs. correlator spacing shows lator spacing, the delay difference between BPSK and
that a change of carrier frequency is not the only cause BOC was negligible. However, the difference in the
of a change in delay due to non-linear phase filtering. modulation types will force different correlator spacings
When designing a GNSS receiver and compensating for to be used which may result in a more significant differ-
delay errors across multiple signal types, the effect of ence between BPSK and BOC(1, 1) delay.
correlator spacing is another characteristic which needs The analysis done for this paper involved only the
to be considered. For designs using variable correlator effect of a SAW filter. A practical GNSS receiver will
spacing to maximize code phase accuracy, the delay have a more complex signal chain introducing more non-
compensation will have to be dynamically changed linearity’s, in which case a more in depth analysis would
according to any changes of correlator spacing. Figure 26 need to be done to determine the overall system effect
also suggests that step changes in correlator spacing on the code phase and carrier delay.
would also result in step changes in code phase delay,
this would in turn cause unwanted transients in the code
phase loop. Therefore, changing correlator spacing must Acknowledgments
be done slowly and gradually.
This research is being carried out within iNsight (www.insight-
gnss.org). It is a collaborative research project funded by the
UK’s Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council
(EPSRC) to extend the applications and improve the efficiency
of positioning through the exploitation of new global
navigation satellite systems signals. It is being undertaken by a
consortium of 12 UK University and industrial groups:
Imperial College London, University College London, the
University of Nottingham, the University of Westminster,
EADS Astrium, Nottingham Scientific Ltd, Leica Geosystems,
Ordnance Survey of Great Britain, QinetiQ,
STMicroelectronics, Thales Research and Technology UK
Limited, and the UK Civil Aviation Authority.
Thanks are also due to Alper Ucar from the University of
Westminster for providing MATLAB code for GPS signal
generation.

Notes on contributors
Reuben Berry was awarded Master of Engineering (MEng)
Figure 26. Signal delay against correlator spacing. with Distinction in Electronic Engineering at the University of
 Geo-spatial Information Science 219

Westminster in 2012. He is currently working for the Applied power DSP algorithms/architectures and sigma–delta modulator
DSP and VLSI Research Group (ADVRG) at the University of structures for use in the communications and biomedical
Westminster contributing to the design of a research enabling industries and hybrid Global Navigation Satellite Systems GPS/
GNSS receiver. Galileo/Glonass/Compass receiver structures and systems.

Philip G. Mattos joined STMicroelectronics in 1979. He was

made a visiting research fellow at Bristol University, awarded
an external PhD on his GPS work in 1996, and then appointed References
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DSP and VLSI Research Group, at the University of (4) van Dierendonck, A.J.; Fenton P.; Ford T. Theory and Per-
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