Module 2: Networking Fundamentals (Overview)

Overview
Bandwidth decisions are among the most important considerations when a network is
designed. This module discusses the importance of bandwidth and explains how it is
measured.
Layered models are used to describe network functions. This module covers the two most
important models, which are the Open System Interconnection (OSI) model and the
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) model. The module also
presents the differences and similarities between the two models.
This module also includes a brief history of networking. Students will learn about network
devices and different types of physical and logical layouts. This module also defines and
compares LANs, MANs, WANs, SANs, and VPNs.
Students who complete this module should be able to perform the following tasks:
• Explain the importance of bandwidth in networking
• Use an analogy to explain bandwidth
• Identify bps, kbps, Mbps, and Gbps as units of bandwidth
• Explain the difference between bandwidth and throughput
• Calculate data transfer rates
• Explain why layered models are used to describe data communication
• Explain the development of the OSI model
• List the advantages of a layered approach
• Identify each of the seven layers of the OSI model
• Identify the four layers of the TCP/IP model
• Describe the similarities and differences between the two models
• Briefly outline the history of networking
• Identify devices used in networking
• Understand the role of protocols in networking
• Define LAN, WAN, MAN, and SAN
• Explain VPNs and their advantages
• Describe the differences between intranets and extranets
Networking Terminology (Data Network)

Networking Terminology
Data Network
2.1.1 Data networks developed as a result of business applications that were written for
microcomputers. The microcomputers were not connected so there was no efficient way
to share data among them. It was not efficient or cost-effective for businesses to use
floppy disks to share data. Sneakernet created multiple copies of the data. Each time a
file was modified it would have to be shared again with all other people who needed that
file. If two people modified the file and then tried to share it, one of the sets of changes
would be lost. Businesses needed a solution that would successfully address the
following three problems:
• How to avoid duplication of equipment and resources
• How to communicate efficiently
• How to set up and manage a network
Businesses realized that computer networking could increase productivity and save
money. Networks were added and expanded almost as rapidly as new network
technologies and products were introduced. The early development of networking was
disorganized. However, a tremendous expansion occurred in the early 1980s.
In the mid-1980s, the network technologies that emerged were created with a variety of
hardware and software implementations. Each company that created network hardware
and software used its own company standards. These individual standards were
developed because of competition with other companies. As a result, many of the network
technologies were incompatible with each other. It became increasingly difficult for
networks that used different specifications to communicate with each other. Network
equipment often had to be replaced to implement new technologies.
One early solution was the creation of local-area network (LAN) standards. LAN
standards provided an open set of guidelines that companies used to create network
hardware and software. As a result, the equipment from different companies became
compatible. This allowed for stability in LAN implementations.
In a LAN system, each department of the company is a kind of electronic island. As the
use of computers in businesses grew, LANs became insufficient.
A new technology was necessary to share information efficiently and quickly within a
company and between businesses. The solution was the creation of metropolitan-area
networks (MANs) and wide-area networks (WANs). Because WANs could connect user
networks over large geographic areas, it was possible for businesses to communicate
with each other across great distances. Figure summarizes the relative sizes of LANs and
WANs.
Network history / Networking Devices / Network topology
Network history
2.1.2 This page presents a simplified view of how the Internet evolved.
The history of computer networking is complex. It has involved many people from all over
the world over the past 35 years. Presented here is a simplified view of how the Internet
evolved. The processes of invention and commercialization are far more complicated, but
it is helpful to look at the fundamental development.
In the 1940s computers were large electromechanical devices that were prone to failure.
In 1947 the invention of a semiconductor transistor opened up many possibilities for
making smaller, more reliable computers. In the 1950s large institutions began to use
mainframe computers, which were run by punched card programs. In the late 1950s the
integrated circuit that combined several, and now millions, of transistors on one small
piece of semiconductor was invented. In the 1960s mainframes with terminals and
integrated circuits were widely used.
In the late 1960s and 1970s smaller computers called minicomputers were created.
However, these minicomputers were still very large by modern standards. In 1977 the
Apple Computer Company introduced the microcomputer, which was also known as the
Mac. In 1981 IBM introduced its first PC. The user-friendly Mac, the open-architecture
IBM PC, and the further micro-miniaturization of integrated circuits led to widespread use
of personal computers in homes and businesses.
In the mid-1980s PC users began to use modems to share files with other computers.
This was referred to as point-to-point, or dial-up communication. This concept was
expanded by the use of computers that were the central point of communication in a dial-
up connection. These computers were called bulletin boards. Users would connect to the
bulletin boards, leave and pick up messages, as well as upload and download files. The
drawback to this type of system was that there was very little direct communication and
then only with those who knew about the bulletin board. Another limitation was that the
bulletin board computer required one modem per connection. If five people connected
simultaneously it would require five modems connected to five separate phone lines. As
the number of people who wanted to use the system grew, the system was not able to
handle the demand. For example, imagine if 500 people wanted to connect at the same
time.
From the 1960s to the 1990s the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) developed large,
reliable, wide-area networks (WANs) for military and scientific reasons. This technology
was different from the point-to-point communication used in bulletin boards. It allowed
multiple computers to be connected together through many different paths. The network
itself would determine how to move data from one computer to another. One connection
could be used to reach many computers at the same time. The WAN developed by the
DoD eventually became the Internet.

Networking devices
2.1.3 Equipment that connects directly to a network segment is referred to as a device.
These devices are broken up into two classifications. The first classification is end-user
devices. End-user devices include computers, printers, scanners, and other devices that
provide services directly to the user. The second classification is network devices.
Network devices include all the devices that connect the end-user devices together to
allow them to communicate.
End-user devices that provide users with a connection to the network are also referred to
as hosts. These devices allow users to share, create, and obtain information. The host
devices can exist without a network, but without the network the host capabilities are
greatly reduced. NICs are used to physically connect host devices to the network media.
They use this connection to send e-mails, print reports, scan pictures, or access
databases.
A NIC is a printed circuit board that fits into the expansion slot of a bus on a computer
motherboard. It can also be a peripheral device. NICs are sometimes called network
adapters. Laptop or notebook computer NICs are usually the size of a PCMCIA card.
Each NIC is identified by a unique code called a Media Access Control (MAC) address.
This address is used to control data communication for the host on the network. More
about the MAC address will be covered later. As the name implies, the NIC controls host
access to the network.
There are no standardized symbols for end-user devices in the networking industry. They
appear similar to the real devices to allow for quick recognition.
Network devices are used to extend cable connections, concentrate connections, convert
data formats, and manage data transfers. Network devices provide extension of cable
connections, concentration of connections, conversion of data formats, and management
of data transfers. Examples of devices that perform these functions are repeaters, hubs,
bridges, switches, and routers. All of the network devices mentioned here are covered in
depth later in the course. For now, a brief overview of networking devices will be provided.
A repeater is a network device used to regenerate a signal. Repeaters regenerate analog
or digital signals that are distorted by transmission loss due to attenuation. A repeater
does not make intelligent decision concerning forwarding packets like a router or bridge.
Hubs concentrate connections. In other words, they take a group of hosts and allow the
network to see them as a single unit. This is done passively, without any other effect on
the data transmission. Active hubs concentrate hosts and also regenerate signals.
Bridges convert network data formats and perform basic data transmission management.
Bridges provide connections between LANs. They also check data to determine if it
should cross the bridge. This makes each part of the network more efficient.
Workgroup switches add more intelligence to data transfer management. They can
determine if data should remain on a LAN and transfer data only to the connection that
needs it. Another difference between a bridge and switch is that a switch does not convert
data transmission formats.
Routers have all the capabilities listed above. Routers can regenerate signals,
concentrate multiple connections, convert data transmission formats, and manage data
transfers. They can also connect to a WAN, which allows them to connect LANs that are
separated by great distances. None of the other devices can provide this type of
connection.
The Interactive Media Activities will allow students to become more familiar with network
devices.
The next page will introduce some common types of network topologies.
Network topology
This page will introduce students to the most common physical and logical network
topologies.
2.1.4 Network topology defines the structure of the network. One part of the topology
definition is the physical topology, which is the actual layout of the wire or media. The
other part is the logical topology, which defines how the hosts access the media to send
data. The physical topologies that are commonly used are as follows:
• A bus topology uses a single backbone cable that is terminated at both ends. All the
hosts connect directly to this backbone.
• A ring topology connects one host to the next and the last host to the first. This creates
a physical ring of cable.
• A star topology connects all cables to a central point.
• An extended star topology links individual stars together by connecting the hubs or
switches.
• A hierarchical topology is similar to an extended star. However, instead of linking the
hubs or switches together, the system is linked to a computer that controls the traffic on
the topology.
• A mesh topology is implemented to provide as much protection as possible from
interruption of service. For example, a nuclear power plant might use a mesh topology in
the networked control systems. As seen in the graphic, each host has its own connections
to all other hosts. Although the Internet has multiple paths to any one location, it does not
adopt the full mesh topology.
The logical topology of a network determines how the hosts communicate across the
medium. The two most common types of logical topologies are broadcast and token
passing.
The use of a broadcast topology indicates that each host sends its data to all other hosts
on the network medium. There is no order that the stations must follow to use the network.
It is first come, first serve. Ethernet works this way as will be explained later in the course.
The second logical topology is token passing. In this type of topology, an electronic token
is passed sequentially to each host. When a host receives the token, that host can send
data on the network. If the host has no data to send, it passes the token to the next host
and the process repeats itself. Two examples of networks that use token passing are
Token Ring and Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI). A variation of Token Ring and
FDDI is Arcnet. Arcnet is token passing on a bus topology.
The diagram in Figure shows many different topologies connected by network devices. It
shows a network of moderate complexity that is typical of a school or a small business.
The diagram includes many symbols and networking concepts that will take time to learn.
Network protocols/ LAN / WAN /

Network protocols
2.1.5 Protocol suites are collections of protocols that enable network communication
between hosts. A protocol is a formal description of a set of rules and conventions that
govern a particular aspect of how devices on a network communicate. Protocols
determine the format, timing, sequencing, and error control in data communication.
Without protocols, the computer cannot make or rebuild the stream of incoming bits from
another computer into the original format.
Protocols control all aspects of data communication, which include the following:
• How the physical network is built
• How computers connect to the network
• How the data is formatted for transmission
• How that data is sent
• How to deal with errors
These network rules are created and maintained by many different organizations and
committees. Included in these groups are the Institute of Electrical and Electronic
Engineers (IEEE), American National Standards Institute (ANSI), Telecommunications
Industry Association (TIA), Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA) and the International
Telecommunications Union (ITU), formerly known as the Comité Consultatif International
Téléphonique et Télégraphique (CCITT).
Local-area networks (LANs)
2.1.6 LANs consist of the following components:
• Computers
• Network interface cards
• Peripheral devices
• Networking media
• Network devices
LANs allow businesses to locally share computer files and printers efficiently and make
internal communications possible. A good example of this technology is e-mail. LANs
manage data, local communications, and computing equipment.
Some common LAN technologies include the following:
• Ethernet
• Token Ring
• FDDI
Wide-area networks (WANs)
2.1.7 WANs interconnect LANs, which then provide access to computers or file servers
in other locations. Because WANs connect user networks over a large geographical area,
they make it possible for businesses to communicate across great distances. WANs allow
computers, printers, and other devices on a LAN to be shared with distant locations.
WANs provide instant communications across large geographic areas.
Collaboration software provides access to real-time information and resources and allows
meetings to be held remotely. WANs have created a new class of workers called
telecommuters. These people never have to leave their homes to go to work.
WANs are designed to do the following:
• Operate over a large and geographically separated area
• Allow users to have real-time communication capabilities with other users
• Provide full-time remote resources connected to local services
• Provide e-mail, Internet, file transfer, and e-commerce services
Some common WAN technologies include the following:
• Modems
• Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)
• Digital subscriber line (DSL)
• Frame Relay
• T1, E1, T3, and E3
• Synchronous Optical Network (SONET)
Metropolitan-area networks (MANs)
2.1.8 The next page will introduce metropolitan-area networks (MANs).
Wireless bridge technologies that send signals across public areas can also be used to
create a MAN. A MAN usually consists of two or more LANs in a common geographic
area. For example, a bank with multiple branches may utilize a MAN. Typically, a service
provider is used to connect two or more LAN sites using private communication lines or
optical services. A MAN can also be created using wireless bridge technology by beaming
signals across public areas.

Storage-area networks (SANs)

2.1.9 A storage-area network (SAN) is a dedicated, high-performance network used to
move data between servers and storage resources. Because it is a separate, dedicated
network, it avoids any traffic conflict between clients and servers.
SAN technology allows high-speed server-to-storage, storage-to-storage, or server-to-
server connectivity. This method uses a separate network infrastructure that relieves any
problems associated with existing network connectivity.
SANs offer the following features:
• Performance – SANs allow concurrent access of disk or tape arrays by two or more
servers at high speeds. This provides enhanced system performance.
• Availability – SANs have built-in disaster tolerance. Data can be duplicated on a SAN
up to 10 km (6.2 miles) away.
• Scalability – A SAN can use a variety of technologies. This allows easy relocation of
backup data, operations, file migration, and data replication between systems.
The next page will introduce virtual private networks (VPNs).
VPN/Benefits of VPNs/ Intranet and Extranet

Virtual private network (VPN)

2.1.10 A vitual private network (VPN) is a private network that is constructed within a
public network infrastructure such as the global Internet. Using VPN, a telecommuter can
remotely access the network of the company headquarters. Through the Internet, a
secure tunnel can be built between the PC of the telecommuter and a VPN router at the
company headquarters.
The next page will explain the benefits of VPNs.
Benefits of VPNs
2.1.11 This page will introduce the three main types of VPNs and explain how they work.
Cisco products support the latest in VPN technology. A VPN is a service that offers
secure, reliable connectivity over a shared public network infrastructure such as the
Internet. VPNs maintain the same security and management policies as a private
network. The use of a VPN is the most cost-effective way to establish a point-to-point
connection between remote users and an enterprise network.
The following are the three main types of VPNs:
• Access VPNs provide remote access for mobile and small office, home office (SOHO)
users to an Intranet or Extranet over a shared infrastructure. Access VPNs use analog,
dialup, ISDN, DSL, mobile IP, and cable technologies to securely connect mobile users,
telecommuters, and branch offices.
• Intranet VPNs use dedicated connections to link regional and remote offices to an
internal network over a shared infrastructure. Intranet VPNs differ from Extranet VPNs in
that they allow access only to the employees of the enterprise.
• Extranet VPNs use dedicated connections to link business partners to an internal
network over a shared infrastructure. Extranet VPNs differ from Intranet VPNs in that they
allow access to users outside the enterprise.
The next page will introduce intranets and extranets.
This page will teach students about intranets and extranets.

Intranets and extranets

2.1.12 One common configuration of a LAN is an intranet. Intranet Web servers differ
from public Web servers in that the public must have the proper permissions and
passwords to access the intranet of an organization. Intranets are designed to permit
users who have access privileges to the internal LAN of the organization. Within an
intranet, Web servers are installed in the network. Browser technology is used as the
common front end to access information on servers such as financial, graphical, or text-
based data.
Extranets refer to applications and services that are Intranet based, and use extended,
secure access to external users or enterprises. This access is usually accomplished
through passwords, user IDs, and other application-level security. An extranet is the
extension of two or more intranet strategies with a secure interaction between participant
enterprises and their respective intranets.
This page concludes this lesson. The next lesson will discuss bandwidth. The first page
will explain why bandwidth is important.
Importance of bandwidth / The Desktop / Measurement / Limitations
Importance of bandwidth
2.2.1 Bandwidth is defined as the amount of information that can flow through a network
connection in a given period of time. It is important to understand the concept of
bandwidth for the following reasons.
Bandwidth is finite. Regardless of the media used to build a network, there are limits on
the network capacity to carry information. Bandwidth is limited by the laws of physics and
by the technologies used to place information on the media. For example, the bandwidth
of a conventional modem is limited to about 56 kbps by both the physical properties of
twisted-pair phone wires and by modem technology. DSL uses the same twisted-pair
phone wires. However, DSL provides much more bandwidth than conventional modems.
So, even the limits imposed by the laws of physics are sometimes difficult to define.
Optical fiber has the physical potential to provide virtually limitless bandwidth. Even so,
the bandwidth of optical fiber cannot be fully realized until technologies are developed to
take full advantage of its potential.
Bandwidth is not free. It is possible to buy equipment for a LAN that will provide nearly
unlimited bandwidth over a long period of time. For WAN connections, it is usually
necessary to buy bandwidth from a service provider. In either case, individual users and
businesses can save a lot of money if they understand bandwidth and how the demand
will change over time. A network manager needs to make the right decisions about the
kinds of equipment and services to buy.
Bandwidth is an important factor that is used to analyze network performance, design
new networks, and understand the Internet. A networking professional must understand
the tremendous impact of bandwidth and throughput on network performance and design.
Information flows as a string of bits from computer to computer throughout the world.
These bits represent massive amounts of information flowing back and forth across the
globe in seconds or less.
The demand for bandwidth continues to grow. As soon as new network technologies and
infrastructures are built to provide greater bandwidth, new applications are created to take
advantage of the greater capacity. The delivery of rich media content such as streaming
video and audio over a network requires tremendous amounts of bandwidth. IP telephony
systems are now commonly installed in place of traditional voice systems, which further
adds to the need for bandwidth. The successful networking professional must anticipate
the need for increased bandwidth and act accordingly.
The next page will describe some analogies that can be used to understand bandwidth.
This page will present two analogies that may make it easier to visualize bandwidth in a
network.

The desktop
2.2.2 Bandwidth has been defined as the amount of information that can flow through a
network in a given time. The idea that information flows suggests two analogies that may
make it easier to visualize bandwidth in a network.
Bandwidth is like the width of a pipe. A network of pipes brings fresh water to homes and
businesses and carries waste water away. This water network is made up of pipes of
different diameters. The main water pipes of a city may be 2 meters in diameter, while
the pipe to a kitchen faucet may have a diameter of only 2 cm. The width of the pipe
determines the water-carrying capacity of the pipe. Therefore, the water is like the data,
and the pipe width is like the bandwidth. Many networking experts say that they need to
put in bigger pipes when they wish to add more information-carrying capacity.
Bandwidth is like the number of lanes on a highway. A network of roads serves every city
or town. Large highways with many traffic lanes are joined by smaller roads with fewer
traffic lanes. These roads lead to narrower roads that lead to the driveways of homes and
businesses. When very few automobiles use the highway system, each vehicle is able to
move freely. When more traffic is added, each vehicle moves more slowly. This is
especially true on roads with fewer lanes. As more traffic enters the highway system,
even multi-lane highways become congested and slow. A data network is much like the
highway system. The data packets are comparable to automobiles, and the bandwidth is
comparable to the number of lanes on the highway. When a data network is viewed as a
system of highways, it is easy to see how low bandwidth connections can cause traffic to
become congested all over the network.
This page will explain how bandwidth is measured.

Measurement
2.2.3 In digital systems, the basic unit of bandwidth is bits per second (bps). Bandwidth
is the measure of how many bits of information can flow from one place to another in a
given amount of time. Although bandwidth can be described in bps, a larger unit of
measurement is generally used. Network bandwidth is typically described as thousands
of bits per second (kbps), millions of bits per second (Mbps), billions of bits per second
(Gbps), and trillions of bits per second (Tbps). Although the terms bandwidth and speed
are often used interchangeably, they are not exactly the same thing. One may say, for
example, that a T3 connection at 45 Mbps operates at a higher speed than a T1
connection at 1.544 Mbps. However, if only a small amount of their data-carrying capacity
is being used, each of these connection types will carry data at roughly the same speed.
For example, a small amount of water will flow at the same rate through a small pipe as
through a large pipe. Therefore, it is usually more accurate to say that a T3 connection
has greater bandwidth than a T1 connection. This is because the T3 connection is able
to carry more information in the same period of time, not because it has a higher speed.
The next page will discuss the limitations of bandwidth.

Limitations
2.2.4 Bandwidth varies depending upon the type of media as well as the LAN and WAN
technologies used. The physics of the media account for some of the difference. Signals
travel through twisted-pair copper wire, coaxial cable, optical fiber, and air. The physical
differences in the ways signals travel result in fundamental limitations on the information-
carrying capacity of a given medium. However, the actual bandwidth of a network is
determined by a combination of the physical media and the technologies chosen for
signaling and detecting network signals.
For example, current information about the physics of unshielded twisted-pair (UTP)
copper cable puts the theoretical bandwidth limit at over 1 Gbps. However, in actual
practice, the bandwidth is determined by the use of 10BASE-T, 100BASE-TX, or
1000BASE-TX Ethernet. The actual bandwidth is determined by the signaling methods,
NICs, and other network equipment that is chosen. Therefore, the bandwidth is not
determined solely by the limitations of the medium.
Figure shows some common networking media types along with their distance and
bandwidth limitations.
Figure summarizes common WAN services and the bandwidth associated with each
service.
The next page will discuss the concept of throughput.
Throughput / Data transfer calculation

Throughput
2.2.5 Bandwidth is the measure of the amount of information that can move through the
network in a given period of time. Therefore, the amount of available bandwidth is a critical
part of the specification of the network. A typical LAN might be built to provide 100 Mbps
to every desktop workstation, but this does not mean that each user is actually able to
move 100 megabits of data through the network for every second of use. This would be
true only under the most ideal circumstances.
Throughput refers to actual measured bandwidth, at a specific time of day, using specific
Internet routes, and while a specific set of data is transmitted on the network.
Unfortunately, for many reasons, throughput is often far less than the maximum possible
digital bandwidth of the medium that is being used. The following are some of the factors
that determine throughput:
• Internetworking devices
• Type of data being transferred
• Network topology
• Number of users on the network
• User computer
• Server computer
• Power conditions
The theoretical bandwidth of a network is an important consideration in network design,
because the network bandwidth will never be greater than the limits imposed by the
chosen media and networking technologies. However, it is just as important for a network
designer and administrator to consider the factors that may affect actual throughput. By
measuring throughput on a regular basis, a network administrator will be aware of
changes in network performance and changes in the needs of network users. The
network can then be adjusted accordingly.
The next page explains data transfer calculation.

Data transfer calculation

2.2.6 Network designers and administrators are often called upon to make decisions
regarding bandwidth. One decision might be whether to increase the size of the WAN
connection to accommodate a new database. Another decision might be whether the
current LAN backbone is of sufficient bandwidth for a streaming-video training program.
The answers to problems like these are not always easy to find, but one place to start is
with a simple data transfer calculation.
Using the formula transfer time = size of file / bandwidth (T=S/BW) allows a network
administrator to estimate several of the important components of network performance.
If the typical file size for a given application is known, dividing the file size by the network
bandwidth yields an estimate of the fastest time that the file can be transferred.
Two important points should be considered when doing this calculation.
• The result is an estimate only, because the file size does not include any overhead
added by encapsulation.
• The result is likely to be a best-case transfer time, because available bandwidth is almost
never at the theoretical maximum for the network type. A more accurate estimate can be
attained if throughput is substituted for bandwidth in the equation.
Although the data transfer calculation is quite simple, one must be careful to use the same
units throughout the equation. In other words, if the bandwidth is measured in megabits
per second (Mbps), the file size must be in megabits (Mb), not megabytes (MB). Since
file sizes are typically given in megabytes, it may be necessary to multiply the number of
megabytes by eight to convert to megabits.
Try to answer the following question, using the formula T=S/BW. Be sure to convert units
of measurement as necessary.
Would it take less time to send the contents of a floppy disk full of data (1.44 MB) over an
ISDN line, or to send the contents of a ten GB hard drive full of data over an OC-48 line?
The next page will compare analog and digital signals.
The next page will describe the layers of the OSI model.
Digital versus analog / Using layers to analyze problems in a flow of materials

Digital versus analog

This page will explain the differences between analog and digital signals.
2.2.7 Radio, television, and telephone transmissions have, until recently, been sent
through the air and over wires using electromagnetic waves. These waves are called
analog because they have the same shapes as the light and sound waves produced by
the transmitters. As light and sound waves change size and shape, the electrical signal
that carries the transmission changes proportionately. In other words, the electromagnetic
waves are analogous to the light and sound waves.
Analog bandwidth is measured by how much of the electromagnetic spectrum is occupied
by each signal. The basic unit of analog bandwidth is hertz (Hz), or cycles per second.
Typically, multiples of this basic unit of analog bandwidth are used, just as with digital
bandwidth. Units of measurement that are commonly seen are kilohertz (KHz), megahertz
(MHz), and gigahertz (GHz). These are the units used to describe the frequency of
cordless telephones, which usually operate at either 900 MHz or 2.4 GHz. These are also
the units used to describe the frequencies of 802.11a and 802.11b wireless networks,
which operate at 5 GHz and 2.4 GHz.
While analog signals are capable of carrying a variety of information, they have some
significant disadvantages in comparison to digital transmissions. The analog video signal
that requires a wide frequency range for transmission cannot be squeezed into a smaller
band. Therefore, if the necessary analog bandwidth is not available, the signal cannot be
sent.
In digital signaling all information is sent as bits, regardless of the kind of information it is.
Voice, video, and data all become streams of bits when they are prepared for
transmission over digital media. This type of transmission gives digital bandwidth an
important advantage over analog bandwidth. Unlimited amounts of information can be
sent over the smallest or lowest bandwidth digital channel. Regardless of how long it
takes for the digital information to arrive at its destination and be reassembled, it can be
viewed, listened to, read, or processed in its original form.
It is important to understand the differences and similarities between digital and analog
bandwidth. Both types of bandwidth are regularly encountered in the field of information
technology. However, because this course is concerned primarily with digital networking,
the term ‘bandwidth’ will refer to digital bandwidth.
This page concludes this lesson. The next lesson will discuss networking models. The
first page will discuss the concept of layers.

Using layers to analyze problems in a flow of materials

2.3.1 This page explains how layers are used to describe communications between
computers.
The concept of layers is used to describe communication from one computer to another.
Figure shows a set of questions that are related to flow, which is defined as the motion
through a system of either physical or logical objects. These questions show how the
concept of layers helps describe the details of the flow process. This process could be
any kind of flow, from the flow of traffic on a highway system to the flow of data through
a network. Figure shows several examples of flow and ways that the flow process can be
broken down into details or layers.
A conversation between two people provides a good opportunity to use a layered
approach to analyze information flow. In a conversation, each person wishing to
communicate begins by creating an idea. Then a decision is made on how to properly
communicate the idea. For example, a person could decide to speak, sing or shout, and
what language to use. Finally the idea is delivered. For example, the person creates the
sound which carries the message.
This process can be broken into separate layers that may be applied to all conversations.
The top layer is the idea that will be communicated. The middle layer is the decision on
how the idea is to be communicated. The bottom layer is the creation of sound to carry
the communication.
The same method of layering explains how a computer network distributes information
from a source to a destination. When computers send information through a network, all
communications originate at a source then travel to a destination.
The information that travels on a network is generally referred to as data or a packet. A
packet is a logically grouped unit of information that moves between computer systems.
As the data passes between layers, each layer adds additional information that enables
effective communication with the corresponding layer on the other computer.
The OSI and TCP/IP models have layers that explain how data is communicated from
one computer to another. The models differ in the number and function of the layers.
However, each model can be used to help describe and provide details about the flow of
information from a source to a destination.
The next page will explain how layers are used to describe data communication.
Using layers / OSI model

Using layers to describe data communication

2.3.2 This page describes the importance of layers in data communication.
In order for data packets to travel from a source to a destination on a network, it is
important that all the devices on the network speak the same language or protocol. A
protocol is a set of rules that make communication on a network more efficient. For
example, while flying an airplane, pilots obey very specific rules for communication with
other airplanes and with air traffic control.
A data communications protocol is a set of rules or an agreement that determines the
format and transmission of data.
Layer 4 on the source computer communicates with Layer 4 on the destination computer.
The rules and conventions used for this layer are known as Layer 4 protocols. It is
important to remember that protocols prepare data in a linear fashion. A protocol in one
layer performs a certain set of operations on data as it prepares the data to be sent over
the network. The data is then passed to the next layer where another protocol performs
a different set of operations.
Once the packet has been sent to the destination, the protocols undo the construction of
the packet that was done on the source side. This is done in reverse order. The protocols
for each layer on the destination return the information to its original form, so the
application can properly read the data.
The next page explains the OSI model.

OSI model
2.3.3 This page discusses how and why the OSI model was developed.
The early development of networks was disorganized in many ways. The early 1980s saw
tremendous increases in the number and size of networks. As companies realized the
advantages of using networking technology, networks were added or expanded almost
as rapidly as new network technologies were introduced.
By the mid-1980s, these companies began to experience problems from the rapid
expansion. Just as people who do not speak the same language have difficulty
communicating with each other, it was difficult for networks that used different
specifications and implementations to exchange information. The same problem occurred
with the companies that developed private or proprietary networking technologies.
Proprietary means that one or a small group of companies controls all usage of the
technology. Networking technologies strictly following proprietary rules could not
communicate with technologies that followed different proprietary rules.
To address the problem of network incompatibility, the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) researched networking models like Digital Equipment Corporation
net (DECnet), Systems Network Architecture (SNA), and TCP/IP in order to find a
generally applicable set of rules for all networks. Using this research, the ISO created a
network model that helps vendors create networks that are compatible with other
networks.
The Open System Interconnection (OSI) reference model released in 1984 was the
descriptive network model that the ISO created. It provided vendors with a set of
standards that ensured greater compatibility and interoperability among various network
technologies produced by companies around the world.
The OSI reference model has become the primary model for network communications.
Although there are other models in existence, most network vendors relate their products
to the OSI reference model. This is especially true when they want to educate users on
the use of their products. It is considered the best tool available for teaching people about
sending and receiving data on a network.
In the Interactive Media Activity, students will identify the benefits of the OSI model.
OSI layers / Peer-to-peer communications / TCP/IP model

OSI layers
2.3.4 This page discusses the seven layers of the OSI model.
The OSI reference model is a framework that is used to understand how information
travels throughout a network. The OSI reference model explains how packets travel
through the various layers to another device on a network, even if the sender and
destination have different types of network media.
In the OSI reference model, there are seven numbered layers, each of which illustrates a
particular network function. - Dividing the network into seven layers provides the following
advantages:
• It breaks network communication into smaller, more manageable parts.
• It standardizes network components to allow multiple vendor development and support.
• It allows different types of network hardware and software to communicate with each
other.
• It prevents changes in one layer from affecting other layers.
• It divides network communication into smaller parts to make learning it easier to
understand.
In the following Interactive Media Activity, the student will identify the seven layers of the
OSI model.
The next page discusses peer-to-peer communications through the OSI model.

Peer-to-peer communications
2.3.5 This page explains the concept of peer-to-peer communications.
In order for data to travel from the source to the destination, each layer of the OSI model
at the source must communicate with its peer layer at the destination. This form of
communication is referred to as peer-to-peer. During this process, the protocols of each
layer exchange information, called protocol data units (PDUs). Each layer of
communication on the source computer communicates with a layer-specific PDU, and
with its peer layer on the destination computer as illustrated in Figure .
Data packets on a network originate at a source and then travel to a destination. Each
layer depends on the service function of the OSI layer below it. To provide this service,
the lower layer uses encapsulation to put the PDU from the upper layer into its data field.
Then it adds whatever headers and trailers the layer needs to perform its function. Next,
as the data moves down through the layers of the OSI model, additional headers and
trailers are added. After Layers 7, 6, and 5 have added their information, Layer 4 adds
more information. This grouping of data, the Layer 4 PDU, is called a segment.
The network layer provides a service to the transport layer, and the transport layer
presents data to the internetwork subsystem. The network layer has the task of moving
the data through the internetwork. It accomplishes this task by encapsulating the data
and attaching a header creating a packet (the Layer 3 PDU). The header contains
information required to complete the transfer, such as source and destination logical
addresses.
The data link layer provides a service to the network layer. It encapsulates the network
layer information in a frame (the Layer 2 PDU). The frame header contains information
(for example, physical addresses) required to complete the data link functions. The data
link layer provides a service to the network layer by encapsulating the network layer
information in a frame.
The physical layer also provides a service to the data link layer. The physical layer
encodes the data link frame into a pattern of 1s and 0s (bits) for transmission on the
medium (usually a wire) at Layer 1.
The next page describes the TCP/IP reference model.

TCP/IP model
2.3.6 This page discusses the TCP/IP reference model, which is the historical and
technical standard of the Internet.
The U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) created the TCP/IP reference model, because it
wanted to design a network that could survive any conditions, including a nuclear war. In
a world connected by different types of communication media such as copper wires,
microwaves, optical fibers and satellite links, the DoD wanted transmission of packets
every time and under any conditions. This very difficult design problem brought about the
creation of the TCP/IP model.
Unlike the proprietary networking technologies mentioned earlier, TCP/IP was developed
as an open standard. This meant that anyone was free to use TCP/IP. This helped speed
up the development of TCP/IP as a standard.
The TCP/IP model has the following four layers:
• Application layer
• Transport layer
• Internet layer
• Network access layer
Although some of the layers in the TCP/IP model have the same name as layers in the
OSI model, the layers of the two models do not correspond exactly. Most notably, the
application layer has different functions in each model.
The designers of TCP/IP felt that the application layer should include the OSI session and
presentation layer details. They created an application layer that handles issues of
representation, encoding, and dialog control.
The transport layer deals with the quality of service issues of reliability, flow control, and
error correction. One of its protocols, the transmission control protocol (TCP), provides
excellent and flexible ways to create reliable, well-flowing, low-error network
communications.
TCP is a connection-oriented protocol. It maintains a dialogue between source and
destination while packaging application layer information into units called segments.
Connection-oriented does not mean that a circuit exists between the communicating
computers. It does mean that Layer 4 segments travel back and forth between two hosts
to acknowledge the connection exists logically for some period.
The purpose of the Internet layer is to divide TCP segments into packets and send them
from any network. The packets arrive at the destination network independent of the path
they took to get there. The specific protocol that governs this layer is called the Internet
Protocol (IP). Best path determination and packet switching occur at this layer.
The relationship between IP and TCP is an important one. IP can be thought to point the
way for the packets, while TCP provides a reliable transport.
The name of the network access layer is very broad and somewhat confusing. It is also
known as the host-to-network layer. This layer is concerned with all of the components,
both physical and logical, that are required to make a physical link. It includes the
networking technology details, including all the details in the OSI physical and data link
layers.
Figure illustrates some of the common protocols specified by the TCP/IP reference model
layers. Some of the most commonly used application layer protocols include the following:
• File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
• Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
• Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
• Domain Name System (DNS)
• Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP)
The common transport layer protocols include:
• Transport Control Protocol (TCP)
• User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
The primary protocol of the Internet layer is:
• Internet Protocol (IP)
The network access layer refers to any particular technology used on a specific network.
Regardless of which network application services are provided and which transport
protocol is used, there is only one Internet protocol, IP. This is a deliberate design
decision. IP serves as a universal protocol that allows any computer anywhere to
communicate at any time.
A comparison of the OSI model and the TCP/IP model will point out some similarities and
differences.
Similarities include:
• Both have layers.
• Both have application layers, though they include very different services.
• Both have comparable transport and network layers.
• Both models need to be known by networking professionals.
• Both assume packets are switched. This means that individual packets may take
different paths to reach the same destination. This is contrasted with circuit-switched
networks where all the packets take the same path.
Differences include:
• TCP/IP combines the presentation and session layer issues into its application layer.
• TCP/IP combines the OSI data link and physical layers into the network access layer.
• TCP/IP appears simpler because it has fewer layers.
• TCP/IP protocols are the standards around which the Internet developed, so the TCP/IP
model gains credibility just because of its protocols. In contrast, networks are not usually
built on the OSI protocol, even though the OSI model is used as a guide.
Although TCP/IP protocols are the standards with which the Internet has grown, this
curriculum will use the OSI model for the following reasons:
• It is a generic, protocol-independent standard.
• It has more details, which make it more helpful for teaching and learning.
• It has more details, which can be helpful when troubleshooting.
Networking professionals differ in their opinions on which model to use. Due to the nature
of the industry it is necessary to become familiar with both. Both the OSI and TCP/IP
models will be referred to throughout the curriculum. The focus will be on the following:
• TCP as an OSI Layer 4 protocol
• IP as an OSI Layer 3 protocol
• Ethernet as a Layer 2 and Layer 1 technology
Remember that there is a difference between a model and an actual protocol that is used
in networking. The OSI model will be used to describe TCP/IP protocols.
Students will identify the differences between the OSI model and the TCP/IP model in the
Lab Activity.
In the Interactive Media Activity, students will identify the layers of the TCP/IP reference
model.
The next page explains the encapsulation process.
Detailed encapsulation process

Detailed encapsulation process

2.3.7 This page describes the process of encapsulation.
All communications on a network originate at a source, and are sent to a destination. The
information sent on a network is referred to as data or data packets. If one computer (host
A) wants to send data to another computer (host B), the data must first be packaged
through a process called encapsulation.
Encapsulation wraps data with the necessary protocol information before network transit.
Therefore, as the data packet moves down through the layers of the OSI model, it
receives headers, trailers, and other information.
To see how encapsulation occurs, examine the manner in which data travels through the
layers as illustrated in Figure . Once the data is sent from the source, it travels through
the application layer down through the other layers. The packaging and flow of the data
that is exchanged goes through changes as the layers perform their services for end
users. As illustrated in Figure , networks must perform the following five conversion steps
in order to encapsulate data:
1. Build the data – As a user sends an e-mail message, its alphanumeric characters are
converted to data that can travel across the internet work.
2. Package the data for end-to-end transport – The data is packaged for internet work
transport. By using segments, the transport function ensures that the message hosts at
both ends of the e-mail system can reliably communicate.
3. Add the network IP address to the header – The data is put into a packet or datagram
that contains a packet header with source and destination logical addresses. These
addresses help network devices send the packets across the network along a chosen
path.
4. Add the data link layer header and trailer – Each network device must put the packet
into a frame. The frame allows connection to the next directly-connected network device
on the link. Each device in the chosen network path requires framing in order for it to
connect to the next device.
5. Convert to bits for transmission – The frame must be converted into a pattern of 1s and
0s (bits) for transmission on the medium. A clocking function enables the devices to
distinguish these bits as they travel across the medium. The medium on the physical
internet work can vary along the path used. For example, the e-mail message can
originate on a LAN, cross a campus backbone, and go out a WAN link until it reaches its
destination on another remote LAN.
The Lab Activity will provide an in depth review of the OSI model.
The Interactive Media Activity requires students to complete an encapsulation process
flowchart.
This page concludes this lesson. The next page will summarize the main points from the
module.
Summary of 2nd Chapter (Module)
Summary
This page summarizes the topics discussed in this module.
Computer networks developed in response to business and government computing
needs. Applying standards to network functions provided a set of guidelines for creating
network hardware and software and provided compatibility among equipment from
different companies. Information could move within a company and from one business to
another.
Network devices, such as repeaters, hubs, bridges, switches and routers connect host
devices together to allow them to communicate. Protocols provide a set of rules for
communication.
The physical topology of a network is the actual layout of the wire or media. The logical
topology defines how host devices access the media. The physical topologies that are
commonly used are bus, ring, star, extended star, hierarchical, and mesh. The two most
common types of logical topologies are broadcast and token passing.
A local-area network (LAN) is designed to operate within a limited geographical area.
LANs allow multi-access to high-bandwidth media, control the network privately under
local administration, provide full-time connectivity to local services and connect physically
adjacent devices.
A wide-area network (WAN) is designed to operate over a large geographical area. WANs
allow access over serial interfaces operating at lower speeds, provide full-time and part-
time connectivity and connect devices separated over wide areas.
A metropolitan-area network (MAN) is a network that spans a metropolitan area such as
a city or suburban area. A MAN usually consists of two or more LANs in a common
geographic area.
A storage-area network (SAN) is a dedicated, high-performance network used to move
data between servers and storage resources. A SAN provides enhanced system
performance, is scalable, and has disaster tolerance built in.
A virtual private network (VPN) is a private network that is constructed within a public
network infrastructure. Three main types of VPNs are access, Intranet, and Extranet
VPNs. Access VPNs provide mobile workers or small office/home office (SOHO) users
with remote access to an Intranet or Extranet. Intranets are only available to users who
have access privileges to the internal network of an organization. Extranets are designed
to deliver applications and services that are Intranet based to external users or
enterprises.
The amount of information that can flow through a network connection in a given period
of time is referred to as bandwidth. Network bandwidth is typically measured in thousands
of bits per second (kbps), millions of bits per second (Mbps), billions of bits per second
(Gbps) and trillions of bits per second (Tbps). The theoretical bandwidth of a network is
an important consideration in network design. If the theoretical bandwidth of a network
connection is known, the formula T=S/BW (transfer time = size of file / bandwidth) can be
used to calculate potential data transfer time. However the actual bandwidth, referred to
as throughput, is affected by multiple factors such as network devices and topology being
used, type of data, number of users, hardware and power conditions.
Data can be encoded on analog or digital signals. Analog bandwidth is a measure of how
much of the electromagnetic spectrum is occupied by each signal. For instance an analog
video signal that requires a wide frequency range for transmission cannot be squeezed
into a smaller band. If the necessary analog bandwidth is not available the signal cannot
be sent. In digital signaling all information is sent as bits, regardless of the kind of
information it is. Unlimited amounts of information can be sent over the smallest digital
bandwidth channel.
The concept of layers is used to describe communication from one computer to another.
Dividing the network into layers provides the following advantages:
• Reduces complexity
• Standardizes interfaces
• Facilitates modular engineering
• Ensures interoperability
• Accelerates evolution
• Simplifies teaching and learning
Two such layered models are the Open System Interconnection (OSI) and the TCP/IP
networking models. In the OSI reference model, there are seven numbered layers, each
of which illustrates a particular network function: application, presentation, session,
transport, network, data link, and physical. The TCP/IP model has the following four
layers: application, transport, Internet, and network access.
Although some of the layers in the TCP/IP model have the same name as layers in the
OSI model, the layers of the two models do not correspond exactly. The TCP/IP
application layer is equivalent to the OSI application, presentation, and session layers.
The TCP/IP model combines the OSI data link and physical layers into the network
access layer.
No matter which model is applied, networks layers perform the following five conversion
steps in order to encapsulate and transmit data:
1. Images and text are converted to data.
2. The data is packaged into segments.
3. The data segment is encapsulated in a packet with the source and destination
addresses.
4. The packet is encapsulated in a frame with the MAC address of the next directly
connected device.
5. The frame is converted to a pattern of ones and zeros (bits) for transmission on the
media.