Psychoanalytic Perspectives (LO 6.

1)

 Freud's View

 Infants are in the oral stage from birth to age 2, deriving satisfaction through the mouth.

 Proper weaning is crucial to avoid fixation, which could lead to oral behaviors like nail biting or
swearing.

 Emphasized the symbiotic relationship between mother and infant, where the infant feels one with
the mother.

 Successful nursing and weaning lead to a sense of attachment and separation from the mother.

 Erikson's View

 Expanded beyond Freud's focus on nursing and weaning to include overall social environment.

 Proposed the stage of "trust vs. mistrust" during the first 2 years, where infants learn to trust or
distrust the world.

 Emphasized the importance of caregivers meeting all the infant's needs, not just feeding.

 Supporting Evidence

 Harlow & Zimmerman's study with monkeys showed that comfort and security (cloth mother) are
preferred over feeding (wire mother with bottle).

 Schaffer & Emerson's study indicated that infant social relationships are not solely based on nursing
or weaning.

Ethological Perspectives (LO 6.2)

 Attachment Theory

 Infants are biologically predisposed to form emotional bonds with caregivers.

 These bonds are crucial for later social and personality development.

 The first 2 years are a sensitive period for forming these bonds.

 Failure to form close relationships during this period can lead to future social and personality
problems.

 John Bowlby's Contributions

 Infants create internal models of their relationships with caregivers, starting in the first year and
solidifying by age 5.

 These models influence the child’s confidence, expectations, and sense of security.

 Once formed, these models shape experiences, memories, and behaviors.

 Early attachment patterns tend to be recreated in later relationships, including adult romantic
relationships.

 Adoption Considerations

 Children adopted before 6 months without prior negative experiences typically develop normally.

 Those adopted later or with histories of abuse/neglect often face cognitive and emotional
challenges.

 High-risk children may develop reactive attachment disorder, making them irritable and difficult to
comfort.
  Adoptive parents may experience higher parenting-related stress and should seek training and
support.

Attachment in Infants

Overview

 Attachment: An emotional bond where a person’s sense of security is tied to the relationship.

 Development: Depends on the quantity and quality of interactions between infants and parents.

The Parents’ Attachment to the Infant (LO 6.3)

 Synchrony: A mutual, interlocking pattern of attachment behaviors between parent and child, resembling a
conversation.

 Mother-Infant Synchrony: Babies signal needs through crying or smiling, and mothers respond with
caregiving behaviors.

 Father-Infant Synchrony: Fathers have similar attachment behaviors as mothers initially. They
engage more in physical play and roughhousing later on.

 Hormonal Influences:

 Oxytocin in Mothers: Linked to empathy, desire for physical closeness, and relaxation.

 Vasopressin in Fathers: Associated with arousal, aggression, and physical activity.

 Parenting Specialization:

 Mothers: More involved in routine caregiving, talking, and smiling at the baby.

 Fathers: Engage in more physical play and roughhousing.

 Infant Responses: By 6 months, infants respond differently to mothers and fathers, indicating
recognition of these behavioral differences.

 Cultural Context: The impact of paternal behaviors on infant development varies across cultures, influenced
by cultural norms and values regarding parenting roles.

The Infant’s Attachment to the Parents (LO 6.4)

 Attachment Phases (Bowlby, 1969):

1. Nonfocused Orienting and Signaling (Birth to 3 months):

 Babies use behaviors like crying, smiling, and eye contact to draw attention and signal needs
to anyone they encounter.

2. Focus on One or More Figures (3 to 6 months):

 Babies direct attachment signals to a few key people they spend the most time with,
becoming less responsive to strangers.

3. Secure Base Behavior (6 to 24 months):

 True attachment behaviors emerge. Babies follow and cling to caregivers, using them as a
"safe base" especially when anxious or in need.

4. Internal Model (24 months and beyond):

 Children form internal models of their attachment relationships, which influence their future
relationships and behaviors.

 Attachment Behaviors:
  Stranger Anxiety: Clinging to parents in the presence of strangers, typically emerging around 6 to 8
months and peaking by 12 to 16 months.

 Separation Anxiety: Crying or protesting when separated from the parent, appearing slightly later
than stranger anxiety but lasting longer.

 Social Referencing: Infants look to caregivers’ facial expressions and tone of voice to gauge how to
react in new situations. This helps in learning emotional regulation.

Key Takeaways

 Mutual Synchrony between parents and infants is crucial for developing secure attachment relationships.

 Parenting roles may specialize with fathers engaging more in physical play and mothers in caregiving.

 Cultural Context significantly influences the interpretation and impact of paternal behaviors on infant
development.

 Attachment Phases describe the gradual development of a baby’s attachment, culminating in an internal
model that affects lifelong relationships.

 Attachment Behaviors like stranger anxiety, separation anxiety, and social referencing are vital indicators of
a child’s attachment security and emotional development.

Variations in Attachment Quality (LO 6.5)

Ainsworth’s Four Attachment Patterns

Mary Ainsworth’s research, particularly through the Strange Situation procedure, identified four distinct patterns of
attachment that infants form with their caregivers:

1. Secure Attachment

 Behavior: The child separates easily from the caregiver, explores independently but uses the
caregiver as a safe base when threatened. They actively seek contact with the caregiver when
stressed and are easily comforted upon reunion. They show a clear preference for the caregiver over
strangers.

 Indicators: Readily explores when caregiver is present, seeks comfort from the caregiver when
upset, and is quickly soothed when the caregiver returns.

2. Insecure/Avoidant Attachment

 Behavior: The child avoids or ignores the caregiver, shows little emotion when the caregiver departs
or returns. They do not seek much contact and show no preference for the caregiver over a stranger.

 Indicators: Avoids contact and interaction with the caregiver, especially upon reunion. Shows little
distress during separation and limited response to the caregiver's return.

3. Insecure/Ambivalent (Resistant) Attachment

 Behavior: The child is very distressed when separated from the caregiver but is not easily comforted
upon reunion. They exhibit a mixture of seeking and resisting contact, often showing anger or
passivity towards the caregiver.

 Indicators: Greatly upset during separation, but not comforted by the caregiver's return. Seeks and
resists contact alternately, often showing clinginess mixed with resistant behavior.

4. Insecure/Disorganized Attachment
  Behavior: The child shows a lack of coherent strategy for dealing with the stress of separation and
reunion. Behaviors are confused or contradictory, such as approaching the caregiver but avoiding
eye contact or freezing.

 Indicators: Displays of dazed, apprehensive, or disoriented behavior. May show contradictory

actions like moving towards the caregiver while looking away.

The Strange Situation Procedure

The Strange Situation is a standardized laboratory assessment used to observe attachment behaviors. It involves
eight episodes where the infant experiences separations and reunions with the caregiver and interactions with a
stranger:

1. Child and caregiver are together.

2. Stranger enters and joins the caregiver and child.

3. Caregiver leaves the child alone with the stranger.

4. Child is alone.

5. Caregiver returns and reunites with the child.

6. Caregiver leaves the child alone again.

7. Stranger returns and interacts with the child.

8. Caregiver returns for a final reunion.

Stability and Changes in Attachment

 Consistency: When family environments are stable, the attachment type remains consistent over time.

 Changes: Major changes in life circumstances (e.g., divorce, death of a parent, abuse) can alter the
attachment security. Secure attachments can become insecure if the child's environment becomes unstable,
and vice versa.

 Internal Model: Bowlby suggested that the internal model of attachment, initially specific to each
relationship, becomes more generalized by age 4 or 5, influencing all significant relationships.

Attachment and Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD)

 Attachment Misconceptions: Early beliefs linked autism to disturbed attachment due to insensitive
parenting. However, current research shows that most infants with ASD can form secure attachments
despite their social difficulties.

 Neurological Origins: ASDs are primarily neurological, influenced by biological and environmental factors.

 Attachment and ASD: Children with ASD benefit from secure attachments, and early interventions can
improve their social and behavioral outcomes.

Caregiver Characteristics and Attachment (LO 6.6)

The ability of a parent to establish a secure attachment relationship with an infant can be influenced by various
factors related to the caregiver:

1. Emotional Responsiveness:

 Definition: The caregiver's ability to form an emotional bond with the infant.
  Effect: Emotionally available caregivers are crucial for secure attachment. Caregivers who are
emotionally distressed or preoccupied with their own problems may struggle to invest emotionally
in the parent-infant relationship.

2. Contingent Responsiveness:

 Definition: Caregivers who respond sensitively to the child's cues and signals, such as smiling when
the baby smiles or picking them up when they cry.

 Effect: Infants of parents who display contingent responsiveness are more likely to develop secure
attachments. This responsiveness fosters trust and a sense of security in the infant.

3. Marital Status:

 Effect: Infants of married parents are more likely to form secure attachments compared to infants of
cohabiting or single parents. However, this could also be influenced by other factors associated with
marital status, such as education and socioeconomic status.

4. Marital Conflict:

 Effect: Exposure to parental arguments, especially those involving verbal aggression, can lead to
emotional withdrawal in infants, which can interfere with the development of secure attachment.

5. Mental Health:

 Effect: Caregivers' mental health, particularly depression, can impact attachment quality. Depression
may diminish a mother's ability to interpret and respond to infant signals, increasing the risk of
insecure attachment and later emotional problems in the child.

Personality and Temperament:

 Personality: Psychologists use this term to describe patterns in how individuals relate to the world around
them. It encompasses various aspects of behavior, emotion, and cognition.

 Temperament: This refers to inborn predispositions that form the foundation of personality. Temperament
includes dimensions such as activity level, approach/positive emotionality, inhibition/anxiety, negative
emotionality, and effortful control/task persistence.

 Temperament Classifications: Early theories proposed categorical classifications for temperament, such as
easy, difficult, and slow-to-warm-up children, based on observable behaviors. However, contemporary
researchers also explore trait-based dimensions of temperament, emphasizing individual differences in
various characteristics.

 Genetic and Environmental Influences: Studies of twins suggest that temperament has both genetic and
environmental components. Identical twins tend to be more similar in temperament than fraternal twins,
indicating a genetic influence. However, environmental factors also play a role, and there's evidence of
stability in temperament over time.

Self-Concept:

 Subjective Self: This aspect of self-awareness emerges early in infancy, as babies begin to understand that
they are separate individuals who can have an impact on their environment. It involves recognizing oneself
as an agent capable of influencing the world around them.

 Objective Self: As infants develop, they gain awareness of themselves as objects in the world with specific
qualities and properties. This includes understanding aspects like gender, size, and other attributes that
define their identity.

 Emotional Self: Infants start to recognize and express emotions early in life, initially responding to emotional
cues from caregivers. Over time, they develop more sophisticated emotional responses and begin to
 understand and regulate their own emotions. Emotional self-awareness includes recognizing and responding
to a wide range of emotions in oneself and others.

Influence of Stereotypes and Environment:

 Stereotypes: Cultural stereotypes about gender differences can influence perceptions of temperament in
infants and young children. Parents and caregivers may interpret behaviors differently based on the
perceived gender of the child, which can impact their responses and expectations.

 Parental Influence: Parents' responses to their children's temperament can shape their development.
Positive reinforcement of adaptive behaviors and acceptance of individual differences can promote healthy
self-concept and emotional development. Conversely, attempts to force children to conform to certain
behaviors may have negative effects.

 Nature vs. Nurture: The interplay between genetic predispositions and environmental influences is complex.
While genetics contribute to temperament, environmental factors, including parenting style and cultural
expectations, also play a significant role in shaping personality, temperament, and self-concept.

Effects of Nonparental Care

Trends in Nonparental Care:

 Since the late 1970s, there has been a significant increase in women entering the workforce in industrialized
countries, including the United States.

 In the U.S., the percentage of married women with children under 6 years old in the labor force has risen
from 18% in 1970 to 65% in recent years.

 Even among infants under 2 years old, approximately half receive nonparental care at least part-time.

Challenges in Studying Nonparental Care:

 Studying the effects of nonparental care on infant development is complex due to numerous variables
involved in care arrangements.

 Nonparental care encompasses various arrangements, including care by grandparents, enrollment in day-
care centers, and differences in quality.

 Families who opt for nonparental care may differ in significant ways from those who primarily care for
children at home, making it challenging to isolate the effects of nonparental care.

Effects on Physical and Cognitive Development:

 Infants and young children in nonparental care settings are more likely to be overweight compared to those
exclusively cared for by parents.

 Quality day care may have beneficial effects on overall cognitive development, particularly for children from
poor families. However, some studies suggest negative effects on cognitive development, such as lower
scores on achievement tests.

Effects on Social Development:

 Nonparental care, particularly when started before the first birthday, may be associated with a heightened
risk of insecure attachment.

 Children who spend significant time in nonparental care throughout early childhood may be at greater risk
for social problems, including aggressiveness and disobedience.

 Individual and gender differences may interact with nonparental care, influencing its effects on social
development.

Interpreting Research on Nonparental Care:

 Research indicates that nonparental care may increase stress hormone levels in infants and young children,
but the implications for brain development are not yet fully understood.

 Quality of care may be as important as the quantity of care, and individual differences, such as temperament
and gender, may also play a role in how children respond to nonparental care.

 On average, the differences between children in nonparental care and those cared for at home, both
positive and negative, are small. Family variables may be more influential than the type of day-care
arrangement in determining child outcomes.