Systems Engineering

Systems engineering is an interdisciplinary field of engineering and engineering management that focuses on how to
design, integrate, and manage complex systems over their life cycles. At its core, systems engineering utilizes systems
thinking principles to organize this body of knowledge. The individual outcome of such efforts, an engineered system, can
be defined as a combination of components that work in synergy to collectively perform a useful function.
Issues such as requirements engineering, reliability, logistics, coordination of different teams, testing and evaluation,
maintainability and many other disciplines necessary for successful system design, development, implementation, and
ultimate decommission become more difficult when dealing with large or complex projects. Systems engineering deals with
work-processes, optimization methods and risk management tools in such projects.
It overlaps technical and human-centered disciplines such as industrial engineering, process systems
engineering, mechanical engineering, manufacturing engineering, production engineering, control engineering, software
engineering, electrical engineering, cybernetics, aerospace engineering, organizational studies, civil engineering and project
management. Systems engineering ensures that all likely aspects of a project or system are considered and integrated into
a whole.
The systems engineering process is a discovery process that is quite unlike a manufacturing process. A manufacturing
process is focused on repetitive activities that achieve high quality outputs with minimum cost and time. The systems
engineering process must begin by discovering the real problems that need to be resolved, and identifying the most
probable or highest impact failures that can occur – systems engineering involves finding solutions to these problems.
1. BackGround
The term systems engineering can be traced back to Bell Telephone Laboratories in the 1940s.The need to identify and
manipulate the properties of a system as a whole, which in complex engineering projects may greatly differ from the sum of
the parts' properties, motivated various industries, especially those developing systems for the U.S. military, to apply the
discipline.
When it was no longer possible to rely on design evolution to improve upon a system and the existing tools were not
sufficient to meet growing demands, new methods began to be developed that addressed the complexity directly.[4] The
continuing evolution of systems engineering comprises the development and identification of new methods and modeling
techniques. These methods aid in a better comprehension of the design and developmental control of engineering systems
as they grow more complex. Popular tools that are often used in the systems engineering context were developed during
these times, including USL, UML, QFD, and IDEF.
In 1990, a professional society for systems engineering, the National Council on Systems Engineering (NCOSE), was founded
by representatives from a number of U.S. corporations and organizations. NCOSE was created to address the need for
improvements in systems engineering practices and education. As a result of growing involvement from systems engineers
outside of the U.S., the name of the organization was changed to the International Council on Systems
Engineering (INCOSE) in 1995.[5] Schools in several countries offer graduate programs in systems engineering,
and continuing education options are also available for practicing engineers

2. CONCEPT
Systems engineering signifies only an approach and, more recently, a discipline in engineering. The aim of education in
systems engineering is to formalize various approaches simply and in doing so, identify new methods and research
opportunities similar to that which occurs in other fields of engineering. As an approach, systems engineering is holistic and
interdisciplinary in flavour.
2.1. Origins and traditional scope
The traditional scope of engineering embraces the conception, design, development, production and operation of
physical systems. Systems engineering, as originally conceived, falls within this scope. "Systems engineering", in this
sense of the term, refers to the building of engineering concepts.
2.2. Evolution to broader scope
The use of the term "systems engineer" has evolved over time to embrace a wider, more holistic concept of "systems"
and of engineering processes. This evolution of the definition has been a subject of ongoing controversy, [13] and the
term continues to apply to both the narrower and broader scope.
Traditional systems engineering was seen as a branch of engineering in the classical sense, that is, as applied only to
physical systems, such as spacecraft and aircraft. More recently, systems engineering has evolved to take on a broader
meaning especially when humans were seen as an essential component of a system. Peter Checkland, for example,
captures the broader meaning of systems engineering by stating that 'engineering' "can be read in its general sense;
you can engineer a meeting or a political agreement."[14]: 10
Consistent with the broader scope of systems engineering, the Systems Engineering Body of Knowledge (SEBoK)[15] has
defined three types of systems engineering: (1) Product Systems Engineering (PSE) is the traditional systems
engineering focused on the design of physical systems consisting of hardware and software. (2) Enterprise Systems
Engineering (ESE) pertains to the view of enterprises, that is, organizations or combinations of organizations, as
systems. (3) Service Systems Engineering (SSE) has to do with the engineering of service systems. Checkland [14] defines a
service system as a system which is conceived as serving another system. Most civil infrastructure systems are service
systems.
2.3. Holistic View
Systems engineering focuses on analyzing and eliciting customer needs and required functionality early in the
development cycle, documenting requirements, then proceeding with design synthesis and system validation while
considering the complete problem, the system lifecycle. This includes fully understanding all of
the stakeholders involved. Oliver et al. claim that the systems engineering process can be decomposed into

 a Systems Engineering Technical Process, and

 a Systems Engineering Management Process.
Within Oliver's model, the goal of the Management Process is to organize the technical effort in the lifecycle, while the
Technical Process includes assessing available information, defining effectiveness measures, to create a behavior
model, create a structure model, perform trade-off analysis, and create sequential build & test plan.[16]
Depending on their application, although there are several models that are used in the industry, all of them aim to
identify the relation between the various stages mentioned above and incorporate feedback. Examples of such models
include the Waterfall model and the VEE model (also called the V model).
2.4. Interdisciplinary Field
System development often requires contribution from diverse technical disciplines. [18] By providing a systems (holistic)
view of the development effort, systems engineering helps mold all the technical contributors into a unified team
effort, forming a structured development process that proceeds from concept to production to operation and, in some
cases, to termination and disposal. In an acquisition, the holistic integrative discipline combines contributions and
balances tradeoffs among cost, schedule, and performance while maintaining an acceptable level of risk covering the
entire life cycle of the item.[19]
This perspective is often replicated in educational programs, in that systems engineering courses are taught by faculty
from other engineering departments, which helps create an interdisciplinary environment.

2.5. Managing Complexity

The need for systems engineering arose with the increase in complexity of systems and projects, in turn exponentially
increasing the possibility of component friction, and therefore the unreliability of the design. When speaking in this
context, complexity incorporates not only engineering systems, but also the logical human organization of data. At the
same time, a system can become more complex due to an increase in size as well as with an increase in the amount of
data, variables, or the number of fields that are involved in the design. The International Space Station is an example of
such a system.
The development of smarter control algorithms, microprocessor design, and analysis of environmental systems also
come within the purview of systems engineering. Systems engineering encourages the use of tools and methods to
better comprehend and manage complexity in systems. Some examples of these tools can be seen here: [22]
  System architecture,
 System model, Modeling, and Simulation,
 Optimization,
 System dynamics,
 Systems analysis,
 Statistical analysis,
 Reliability analysis, and
 Decision making
Taking an interdisciplinary approach to engineering systems is inherently complex since the behavior of and interaction
among system components is not always immediately well defined or understood. Defining and characterizing
such systems and subsystems and the interactions among them is one of the goals of systems engineering. In doing so,
the gap that exists between informal requirements from users, operators, marketing organizations, and technical
specifications is successfully bridged.
2.6. Scope

One way to understand the motivation behind

systems engineering is to see it as a method, or
practice, to identify and improve common rules that
exist within a wide variety of systems.] Keeping this
in mind, the principles of systems engineering –
holism, emergent behavior, boundary, et al. – can be
applied to any system, complex or otherwise,
provided systems thinking is employed at all
levels. Besides defense and aerospace, many
information and technology based companies,
software development firms, and industries in the
field of electronics & communications require
systems engineers as part of their team.
An analysis by the INCOSE Systems Engineering
center of excellence (SECOE) indicates that optimal
effort spent on systems engineering is about 15–20%
The scope of systems engineering activities
of the total project effort

At the same time, studies have shown that systems engineering essentially leads to reduction in costs among other
benefits.[26] However, no quantitative survey at a larger scale encompassing a wide variety of industries has been
conducted until recently. Such studies are underway to determine the effectiveness and quantify the benefits of
systems engineering.[27][28]
Systems engineering encourages the use of modeling and simulation to validate assumptions or theories on systems
and the interactions within them.
Use of methods that allow early detection of possible failures, in safety engineering, are integrated into the design
process. At the same time, decisions made at the beginning of a project whose consequences are not clearly
understood can have enormous implications later in the life of a system, and it is the task of the modern systems
engineer to explore these issues and make critical decisions. No method guarantees today's decisions will still be valid
when a system goes into service years or decades after first conceived. However, there are techniques that support the
process of systems engineering. Examples include soft systems methodology, Jay Wright Forrester's System
dynamics method, and the Unified Modeling Language (UML)—all currently being explored, evaluated, and developed
to support the engineering decision process.
3. EDUCATION
Education in systems engineering is often seen as an extension to the regular engineering courses, [31] reflecting the industry
attitude that engineering students need a foundational background in one of the traditional engineering disciplines
(e.g., aerospace engineering, civil engineering, electrical engineering, mechanical engineering, manufacturing
engineering, industrial engineering, chemical engineering)—plus practical, real-world experience to be effective as systems
engineers. Undergraduate university programs explicitly in systems engineering are growing in number but remain
uncommon, the degrees including such material most often presented as a BS in Industrial Engineering. Typically programs
(either by themselves or in combination with interdisciplinary study) are offered beginning at the graduate level in both
academic and professional tracks, resulting in the grant of either a MS/MEng or Ph.D./EngD degree.
INCOSE, in collaboration with the Systems Engineering Research Center at Stevens Institute of Technology maintains a
regularly updated directory of worldwide academic programs at suitably accredited institutions. [6] As of 2017, it lists over
140 universities in North America offering more than 400 undergraduate and graduate programs in systems engineering.
Widespread institutional acknowledgment of the field as a distinct subdiscipline is quite recent; the 2009 edition of the
same publication reported the number of such schools and programs at only 80 and 165, respectively.
Education in systems engineering can be taken as Systems-centric or Domain-centric:

 Systems-centric programs treat systems engineering as a separate discipline and most of the courses are taught
focusing on systems engineering principles and practice.
 Domain-centric programs offer systems engineering as an option that can be exercised with another major field in
engineering.
Both of these patterns strive to educate the systems engineer who is able to oversee interdisciplinary projects with the
depth required of a core-engineer.[

4. SYSTEMS ENGINEERING TOPICS

Systems engineering tools are strategies, procedures, and techniques that aid in performing systems engineering on
a project or product. The purpose of these tools vary from database management, graphical browsing, simulation, and
reasoning, to document production, neutral import/export and more.
4.1. System
There are many definitions of what a system is in the field of systems engineering. Below are a few authoritative
definitions:

 ANSI/EIA-632-1999: "An aggregation of end products and enabling products to achieve a given purpose." [34]
 DAU Systems Engineering Fundamentals: "an integrated composite of people, products, and processes that provide
a capability to satisfy a stated need or objective."[35]
 IEEE Std 1220-1998: "A set or arrangement of elements and processes that are related and whose behavior satisfies
customer/operational needs and provides for life cycle sustainment of the products." [36]
 INCOSE Systems Engineering Handbook: "homogeneous entity that exhibits predefined behavior in the real world
and is composed of heterogeneous parts that do not individually exhibit that behavior and an integrated
configuration of components and/or subsystems."[37]
 INCOSE: "A system is a construct or collection of different elements that together produce results not obtainable by
the elements alone. The elements, or parts, can include people, hardware, software, facilities, policies, and
documents; that is, all things required to produce systems-level results. The results include system level qualities,
properties, characteristics, functions, behavior and performance. The value added by the system as a whole,
beyond that contributed independently by the parts, is primarily created by the relationship among the parts; that
is, how they are interconnected."[38]
 ISO/IEC 15288:2008: "A combination of interacting elements organized to achieve one or more stated purposes." [39]
 NASA Systems Engineering Handbook: "(1) The combination of elements that function together to produce the
capability to meet a need. The elements include all hardware, software, equipment, facilities, personnel, processes,
and procedures needed for this purpose. (2) The end product (which performs operational functions) and enabling
products (which provide life-cycle support services to the operational end products) that make up a system."
4.2. Systems engineering processes
Systems engineering processes encompass all creative, manual and technical activities necessary to define the product
and which need to be carried out to convert a system definition to a sufficiently detailed system design specification for
product manufacture and deployment. Design and development of a system can be divided into four stages, each with
different definitions:[41]

 task definition (informative definition),

 conceptual stage (cardinal definition),
 design stage (formative definition), and
 implementation stage (manufacturing definition).
Depending on their application, tools are used for various stages of the systems engineering process:

4.3. Using models

Models play important and diverse roles in systems engineering. A model can be defined in several ways, including: [42]

 An abstraction of reality designed to answer specific questions about the real world
 An imitation, analogue, or representation of a real world process or structure; or
 A conceptual, mathematical, or physical tool to assist a decision maker.
Together, these definitions are broad enough to encompass physical engineering models used in the verification of a
system design, as well as schematic models like a functional flow block diagram and mathematical (i.e., quantitative)
models used in the trade study process. This section focuses on the last.[42]
The main reason for using mathematical models and diagrams in trade studies is to provide estimates of system
effectiveness, performance or technical attributes, and cost from a set of known or estimable quantities. Typically, a
collection of separate models is needed to provide all of these outcome variables. The heart of any mathematical model
is a set of meaningful quantitative relationships among its inputs and outputs. These relationships can be as simple as
adding up constituent quantities to obtain a total, or as complex as a set of differential equations describing the
trajectory of a spacecraft in a gravitational field. Ideally, the relationships express causality, not just correlation.
 [42]
Furthermore, key to successful systems engineering activities are also the methods with which these models are
efficiently and effectively managed and used to simulate the systems. However, diverse domains often present
recurring problems of modeling and simulation for systems engineering, and new advancements are aiming to
crossfertilize methods among distinct scientific and engineering communities, under the title of 'Modeling &
Simulation-based Systems Engineering'.
4.4. Modeling formalisms and graphical representations
Initially, when the primary purpose of a systems engineer is to comprehend a complex problem, graphic
representations of a system are used to communicate a system's functional and data requirements. [44] Common
graphical representations include:

 Functional flow block diagram (FFBD)

 Model-based design
 Data flow diagram (DFD)
 N2 chart
 IDEF0 diagram
 Use case diagram
 Sequence diagram
 Block diagram
 Signal-flow graph
 USL function maps and type maps
 Enterprise architecture frameworks
A graphical representation relates the various subsystems or parts of a system through functions, data, or interfaces.
Any or each of the above methods are used in an industry based on its requirements. For instance, the N2 chart may be
used where interfaces between systems is important. Part of the design phase is to create structural and behavioral
models of the system.
Once the requirements are understood, it is now the responsibility of a systems engineer to refine them, and to
determine, along with other engineers, the best technology for a job. At this point starting with a trade study, systems
engineering encourages the use of weighted choices to determine the best option. A decision matrix, or Pugh method,
is one way (QFD is another) to make this choice while considering all criteria that are important. The trade study in turn
informs the design, which again affects graphic representations of the system (without changing the requirements). In
an SE process, this stage represents the iterative step that is carried out until a feasible solution is found. A decision
matrix is often populated using techniques such as statistical analysis, reliability analysis, system dynamics (feedback
control), and optimization methods.
4.5. Other tools
Systems Modeling Language (SysML), a modeling language used for systems engineering applications, supports the
specification, analysis, design, verification and validation of a broad range of complex systems. [45]
Lifecycle Modeling Language (LML), is an open-standard modeling language designed for systems engineering that
supports the full lifecycle: conceptual, utilization, support and retirement stages.
5. RELATED FIELDS AND SUB-FIELDS
Many related fields may be considered tightly coupled to systems engineering. The following areas have contributed to the
development of systems engineering as a distinct entity:
5.1. Cognitive systems engineering
Cognitive systems engineering (CSE) is a specific approach to the description and analysis of human-machine systems
or sociotechnical systems.[47] The three main themes of CSE are how humans cope with complexity, how work is
accomplished by the use of artifacts, and how human-machine systems and socio-technical systems can be described as
joint cognitive systems. CSE has since its beginning become a recognized scientific discipline, sometimes also referred to
as cognitive engineering. The concept of a Joint Cognitive System (JCS) has in particular become widely used as a way of
understanding how complex socio-technical systems can be described with varying degrees of resolution. The more
than 20 years of experience with CSE has been described extensively.[48][49]
5.2. Configuration management
Like systems engineering, configuration management as practiced in the defense and aerospace industry is a broad
systems-level practice. The field parallels the taskings of systems engineering; where systems engineering deals with
requirements development, allocation to development items and verification, configuration management deals with
requirements capture, traceability to the development item, and audit of development item to ensure that it has
achieved the desired functionality that systems engineering and/or Test and Verification Engineering have proven out
through objective testing.
5.3. Control engineering
Control engineering and its design and implementation of control systems, used extensively in nearly every industry, is
a large sub-field of systems engineering. The cruise control on an automobile and the guidance system for a ballistic
missile are two examples. Control systems theory is an active field of applied mathematics involving the investigation of
solution spaces and the development of new methods for the analysis of the control process.
5.4. Industrial engineering
Industrial engineering is a branch of engineering that concerns the development, improvement, implementation and
evaluation of integrated systems of people, money, knowledge, information, equipment, energy, material and process.
Industrial engineering draws upon the principles and methods of engineering analysis and synthesis, as well as
mathematical, physical and social sciences together with the principles and methods of engineering analysis and design
to specify, predict, and evaluate results obtained from such systems.
5.5. Interface design
Interface design and its specification are concerned with assuring that the pieces of a system connect and inter-operate
with other parts of the system and with external systems as necessary. Interface design also includes assuring that
system interfaces be able to accept new features, including mechanical, electrical and logical interfaces, including
reserved wires, plug-space, command codes and bits in communication protocols. This is known
as extensibility. Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) or Human-Machine Interface (HMI) is another aspect of interface
design, and is a critical aspect of modern systems engineering. Systems engineering principles are applied in the design
of communication protocols for local area networks and wide area networks.
5.6. Mechatronic engineering
Mechatronic engineering, like systems engineering, is a multidisciplinary field of engineering that uses dynamical
systems modeling to express tangible constructs. In that regard it is almost indistinguishable from Systems Engineering,
but what sets it apart is the focus on smaller details rather than larger generalizations and relationships. As such, both
fields are distinguished by the scope of their projects rather than the methodology of their practice.
5.7. Operations research
Operations research supports systems engineering. The tools of operations research are used in systems analysis,
decision making, and trade studies. Several schools teach SE courses within the operations research or industrial
engineering department,[citation needed] highlighting the role systems engineering plays in complex projects. Operations
research, briefly, is concerned with the optimization of a process under multiple constraints. [50]
5.8. Performance engineering
Performance engineering is the discipline of ensuring a system meets customer expectations for performance
throughout its life. Performance is usually defined as the speed with which a certain operation is executed, or the
capability of executing a number of such operations in a unit of time. Performance may be degraded when operations
queued to execute is throttled by limited system capacity. For example, the performance of a packet-switched
network is characterized by the end-to-end packet transit delay, or the number of packets switched in an hour. The
design of high-performance systems uses analytical or simulation modeling, whereas the delivery of high-performance
implementation involves thorough performance testing. Performance engineering relies heavily on statistics, queueing
theory and probability theory for its tools and processes.
 5.9. Program management and project management
Program management (or programme management) has many similarities with systems engineering, but has broader-
based origins than the engineering ones of systems engineering. Project management is also closely related to both
program management and systems engineering.
5.10. Proposal engineering
Proposal engineering is the application of scientific and mathematical principles to design, construct, and operate a
cost-effective proposal development system. Basically, proposal engineering uses the "systems engineering process" to
create a cost-effective proposal and increase the odds of a successful proposal.
5.11. Reliability engineering
Reliability engineering is the discipline of ensuring a system meets customer expectations for reliability throughout its
life; i.e., it does not fail more frequently than expected. Next to prediction of failure, it is just as much about prevention
of failure. Reliability engineering applies to all aspects of the system. It is closely associated
with maintainability, availability (dependability or RAMS preferred by some), and logistics engineering. Reliability
engineering is always a critical component of safety engineering, as in failure modes and effects analysis (FMEA)
and hazard fault tree analysis, and of security engineering.
5.12. Risk Management
Risk management, the practice of assessing and dealing with risk is one of the interdisciplinary parts of Systems
Engineering. In development, acquisition, or operational activities, the inclusion of risk in tradeoff with cost, schedule,
and performance features, involves the iterative complex configuration management of traceability and evaluation to
the scheduling and requirements management across domains and for the system lifecycle that requires the
interdisciplinary technical approach of systems engineering. Systems Engineering has Risk Management define, tailor,
implement, and monitor a structured process for risk management which is integrated to the overall effort. [51]
5.13. Safety engineering
The techniques of safety engineering may be applied by non-specialist engineers in designing complex systems to
minimize the probability of safety-critical failures. The "System Safety Engineering" function helps to identify "safety
hazards" in emerging designs, and may assist with techniques to "mitigate" the effects of (potentially) hazardous
conditions that cannot be designed out of systems.
5.14. Scheduling
Scheduling is one of the systems engineering support tools as a practice and item in assessing interdisciplinary concerns
under configuration management. In particular the direct relationship of resources, performance features, and risk to
duration of a task or the dependency links among tasks and impacts across the system lifecycle are systems engineering
concerns.
5.15. Security engineering
Security engineering can be viewed as an interdisciplinary field that integrates the community of practice for control
systems design, reliability, safety and systems engineering. It may involve such sub-specialties as authentication of
system users, system targets and others: people, objects and processes.
5.16. Software engineering
From its beginnings, software engineering has helped shape modern systems engineering practice. The techniques used
in the handling of the complexities of large software-intensive systems have had a major effect on the shaping and
reshaping of the tools, methods and processes of Systems Engineering.
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 Systems engineering techniques are used in complex projects:
spacecraft design, computer chip design, robotics, software
integration, and bridge building. Systems engineering uses a
host of tools that include modeling and simulation,
requirements analysis and scheduling to manage complexity.

Systems thinking is a way of making sense of the complexity of the world by looking at it in terms of wholes and relationships rather
than by splitting it down into its parts. It has been used as a way of exploring and developing effective action in complex contexts.
Systems thinking draws on and contributes to systems theory and the system sciences
Requirements engineering (RE) is the process of defining, documenting, and maintaining requirements in the engineering design
process. It is a common role in systems engineering and software engineering.
Risk management is the identification, evaluation, and prioritization of risks (defined in ISO 31000 as the effect of uncertainty on
objectives) followed by coordinated and economical application of resources to minimize, monitor, and control the probability or impact
of unfortunate events[1] or to maximize the realization of opportunities.

In 1990, a professional society for systems engineering, the National Council on Systems Engineering (NCOSE), was founded by
representatives from a number of U.S. corporations and organizations. NCOSE was created to address the need for improvements in
systems engineering practices and education. As a result of growing involvement from systems engineers outside of the U.S., the name
of the organization was changed to the International Council on Systems Engineering (INCOSE) in 1995.[5] Schools in several countries
offer graduate programs in systems engineering, and continuing education options are also available for practicing engineers.

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