CLAUSEWITZ

In the 21st century, wars are undergoing a process of decentralization and globalization, with
revolutionary technological capabilities. Strategic understanding of high-risk conflicts against
vicious adversaries in a frictional environment is crucial. Strategy is a discipline of abstract
thinking and a practical art that requires decision-makers to combine systematic thinking,
political purposes, military means, and people to maintain self-determination and achieve
essential overarching purposes in the face of resistance and friction. A military strategy is an
architectural keystone that enables the government to exert a guiding influence on the armed
forces regarding warfare.

In an age of global information networking, strategic decisions must be made quickly, requiring
high-level decision-makers to stay closely connected with military commanders and apply a
systematic approach. The courses of action available to react to security threats range from
demonstrative observation to major combat operations, serving a clearly defined purpose and
being resourced with the required means.

Carl von Clausewitz's theory offers an intellectual foundation for the development of strategic
thinking and action. This article shows that these timeless lines of thought assist in grasping the
essence of wars in the 21st century. Before any operational planning, a thorough analysis within
the framework of the Fascinating Trinity is necessary, requiring a good understanding of
complex challenges, identifying tendencies, and assessing strengths and weaknesses compared to
an assertive belligerent opponent. Friction, probability, and chance must be given just as much
consideration as the meandering stages of development, as they can alter the planned course of
wars considerably.

Clausewitz examined every facet of battle using a methodical, scientific methodology. The most
significant parts of his most significant and enduring contributions to the philosophy of war and
strategy are highlighted in this article, which also presents and analyses them. First of all, his
well-known conclusion that "War is merely the continuation of policy by other means" is very
notable. [3] Clausewitz's explanation of the vertical continuum of war (policy and strategy
tactics), which he portrays in the strategic "ends, ways, and means" paradigm, was the central
idea of this theory. This is how Clausewitz states that "political discourse is not suspended by
war in and of itself." Political life and war are inextricably linked.

Clausewitz's view of war is that it is subordinate to policy, with the political object determining
both the military objective and the effort required. War is an act of force to compel the enemy to
do our will, and this definition remains relevant today, with the exception of asymmetric threats
like terrorism and organized crime. War is defined as a clash between major interests resolved by
bloodshed, which distinguishes it from other conflicts. However, the non-kinetic aspect of
contemporary warfare, such as information warfare, is crucial. Globalization and technological
advancements have enabled instant messaging over various platforms, making information
campaigns vital in winning wars by winning hearts and minds and discrediting the enemy. This
is evident in recent conflicts like the recent conflict in Afghanistan between NATO and Taliban
forces.
Clausewitz's theories of war offer the scientific principles that allow one to comprehend the
nature of conflict in the past, present, and future. But to him, war was a conflict of wills or moral
forces rather than an activity guided by scientific laws. As a result, the commander who created
the game's rules via ingenuity rather than knowledge was the one who succeeded. This is the idea
and theory of war that gives his writings their eternal significance.

Clausewitz's strategy is still relevant today, as it provides a conceptual link between ends and
means during peacetime and war. Strategy is about delineating how goals, objectives, or purpose
are to be achieved for a mission to be accomplished. It is concerned with the highest level of
planning, with clear end goals and a broad picture of how to reach them.

War is seen as a cruel and relentless human activity driven by policy, interests, and the human
need for domination as a basic instinct of survival. It is not necessary to have two sides willing to
wage war; just one side wants a physical clash, and the initiating side has an advantage. Morality
is a psychological power that leads toward victory and can be influenced by positive and
negative ideology. Fog and friction are everlasting and inevitable intrusive factors in war, which
can be reduced by training, discipline, and high technology.
The backing of the public during war is essential, especially when directly exposed to threat.
Only an active and decisive comprehensive approach can lead to victory. The most successful
waging of war uses the Western approach with its superior technology, discipline, and aggressive
military tradition, along with the ability to respond dynamically and mobilize capital.

Determining strategy is both an art and a science in using means to reach the ends of policy.
Determining strategy is a highly demanding activity for its makers in the extremely complex
contemporary world.
ANTOINE-HENRI JOMINI
Antoine-Henri Jomini is a significant figure in modern military thought, with his ideas shaping
the art and science of warfare. Born a year apart in 1780 and 1779, Clausewitz and Jomini played
pivotal roles in the rise of Napoleon and the infusion of modern military thought in Western
Europe. Jomini's theories and writings, particularly on strategy and tactics, significantly
impacted military thinking in the 19th and 20th centuries, with echoes of his ideas still resonating
in contemporary military doctrines. Clausewitz was part of the Prussian Army defeated in the
Battle of Jena in 1805.
Antoine-Henri Jomini was a military commander for Switzerland in the 19th century, serving
between 1779 and 1869. He was also a writer who significantly contributed to strategic studies
during this period. His work, "The Art of War," which later became the most well-known and
widely read military manual, is still significant and has been so for many years. The work
contributed to developing more systematic and analytical methods within the field of strategic
military study. Jomini is a pivotal figure in developing the modern strategic survey.
Jomini talked about the importance of knowing the basics of war, like how logistics, terrain, and
communication affect military operations. He also said it was essential to see the enemy's
strengths and weaknesses and devise plans to exploit them. His ideas had a significant impact on
both American and Europe military leaders like Ulysses S and Bonaparte, even after he died. His
contributions to strategic studies are considered influential and essential as military strategists'
organs still study and discuss them
Jomini aimed to explain Napoleon's military successes in the early 19th century by presenting a
scientific basis for strategy in warfare. He identified six parts of the art of war: statesmanship,
strategy, grand tactics logistics, engineering (attack and defense of fortifications), and minor
tactics. This focus on strategy separates The Art of War from Clausewitz's work and makes
Jomini's ideas less relevant in the long run. Victory could be achieved by adhering to a
fundamental principle of war: the application of mass against an enemy at a decisive point at the
proper time. Jomini aimed to demonstrate that the chaos and complexity of war could be reduced
to a simple principle that, when mastered by an exceptional military commander, would lead to
victory.
The following list of his works' most important concepts is a testament to how much they have
influenced contemporary military thinking.
1. Lines of Operations: Jomini emphasized the importance of establishing lines of operation,
strategic routes that allow an army to maneuver and maintain communication. This
concept greatly influenced subsequent military planners, who recognized the significance
of securing lines of communication for operational success. Jomini thought of Lines of
Operations as the neural network of the body through which directions and decisions
would flow leading to military action where as Lines of Communication was like the
cardio-vascular system of the body through which blood flowed to keep the body fed
with nutrition and oxygen, both couldn’t be ignored for success in battle.
2. Geography and Terrain: Jomini's influential work on geography and terrain laid the
foundation for modern military campaigns, emphasizing the importance of terrain in
strategic decisions. His concept of a Decisive Point was based on geography, and he
believed that controlling terrain would render troops redundant. His principles were
applied to both Union and Confederate forces during the American Civil War,
emphasizing maneuvering, concentration of force, and securing communication lines.
Generals like Robert E. Lee and Ulysses S. Grant drew inspiration from his writings. The
impact of Jomini is evident in Gen Westmoreland's Vietnam campaign, which focused on
maintaining control over terrain rather than the Viet Cong cadres. The transition from
Jomini to Clausewitz in the US Army was driven by Gen Collin Powell, resulting in the
shift from space-centric to force-centric locus foci in Air Land Battles.
3. Importance of Objective. Jomini underscored the necessity of clearly defined objectives
in military campaigns. This idea has permeated modern warfare, where clear mission
objectives guide tactical and operational decisions. Jomini’s emphasis on the offense as
 the decisive factor in warfare has often been criticized for disregarding the importance of
defense, especially in the context of modern defensive technologies and strategies.
4. Jomini advocated for a unified command structure to ensure effective force coordination
and operational efficiency. This principle is widely adopted in modern militaries,
preventing confusion and enhancing operational efficiency. Jomini's contributions to
leadership preparation and grooming were crucial to the success of Professional Military
Education in France and Russia, where he laid the foundation of the Russian General
Staff in 1832. Although his principles provide a framework, they may not fully address
the dynamic nature of modern warfare, with Directive Style of Command becoming the
norm.

In conclusion. There is no denying Antoine-Henri Jomini's influence on contemporary military

theory. His beliefs, grounded in the realities of his era, established the foundation for battle
tactics, strategic planning, and conduct that lasted throughout the 19th and 20th centuries.
Jomini's influence can still be seen in the fundamental ideas that guide military operations, even
though his ideas have been modified and scrutinised in light of contemporary complexity.
Jomini's concepts serve as a reminder of the timeless ideals that inform military thought, even as
they are combined with modern tactics and doctrines, as warfare continues to change.

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PART 2 ASSIGNMENT

1. Discuss the development of modern warfare.

2. Explain the basic theory of war and the theory of just war (according to Saint Augustine and
Saint Thomas Acquinas. Discuss the 3 tenets under just war).

ANSWER

The roots of modern warfare can be traced back to the 19th century, with the industrialization
and technological advancements that occurred during this period. The introduction of weapons
like the rifled musket, breech-loading firearms, and early artillery pieces marked a significant
shift from the smoothbore muskets and cannons of previous eras.

AMERICAN CIVIL WAR: Many people consider the American Civil War of the 1860s to be a
watershed in history, the first major conflict to make widespread use of innovations like the
railroad, telegraph, and repeating guns. Additionally, throughout this battle, new tactical theories
including the usage of entrenchments and the significance of supply lines and logistics increased.
For instance, the Minié ball, a more precise and deadly rifle bullet, was introduced during the
American Civil War. Railroads and telegraphs were also used to coordinate military activities
across great distances. These breakthroughs caused tremendous casualties as well as the
destruction of infrastructure and human populations.

One of the hallmarks of modern warfare has been the increasing scale and lethality of military
engagements. The industrialization of warfare, starting in the 19th century, allowed for the mass
production of weapons and the mobilization of entire populations. This led to the emergence of
"total war," where the entire resources of a nation were dedicated to the war effort. The late 19th
and early 20th centuries saw the development of even more advanced weaponry, including
machine guns, high-explosive shells, and the first primitive tanks and armored vehicles.

WORLD WAR I: World War I further exemplified the scale and destructiveness of modern
warfare. The introduction of machine guns, heavy artillery, and chemical weapons transformed
the nature of combat, leading to the stalemate of trench warfare and the massive loss of life. The
development of technologies like the tank and the airplane also marked a shift toward more
mobile and combined-arms warfare.

The interwar period witnessed an arms race as nations sought to develop even more powerful
and sophisticated weapons. This included the rise of air power, with the creation of strategic
bombing forces, as well as the emergence of mechanized warfare with the proliferation of tanks
and armored vehicles.

WORLD WAR II: The onset of World War II in 1939 contributed to an even greater acceleration
of military technological innovation. The advent of guided missiles, radar-directed anti-aircraft
guns, jet aircraft, and the first atomic weapons significantly altered the character of warfare.
Techniques like amphibious assaults, blitzkriegs, and strategic bombing campaigns illustrated the
growing intricacy and scope of contemporary military operations. During World War II, these
technologies were further developed and used, and new revolutionary weapons like guided
missiles and radar were eventually introduced. The atomic bomb was also dropped. Millions of
civilians were slaughtered and entire towns were turned to rubble by aircraft bombing, making
the conflict's scope genuinely unprecedented.

The interwar period between the two world wars witnessed rapid technological advancements,
including the rise of military aviation, the development of radar and communications systems,
and the birth of mechanized warfare with the proliferation of tanks, armored personnel carriers,
and self-propelled artillery.

The Cold War and the emergence of nuclear weapons in the wake of World War II paved the
way for the creation of advanced command, control, and communication systems as well as
intercontinental ballistic and submarine-launched missiles. The use of unmanned aerial vehicles
(drones), cyberwarfare capabilities, and precision-guided weapons has increased in modern
warfare as a result of the Vietnam War, the Gulf War, and more recent conflicts. The Cold War
and the advent of nuclear weapons in the wake of World War II drastically changed the
geopolitical environment. The advent of nuclear weapons launched from submarines, early
warning systems, and intercontinental ballistic missiles increased the complexity and risk of
military operations.

Throughout this progression, the key drivers of change have been the constant pursuit of
technological superiority, the need for greater firepower and mobility, and the desire to achieve
decisive strategic and tactical advantages. The development of modern warfare has been a
complex and multifaceted process, with each conflict and technological breakthrough
contributing to its ever-evolving nature.

The growth of modern warfare has been shaped by subsequent conflicts including the Vietnam
War, the Gulf War, and the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq. The character of warfare has changed
even more as a result of the growing employment of unmanned aerial vehicles, cyberwarfare,
and precision-guided weapons, which have made it harder to distinguish between conventional
military operations and newly emerging asymmetric threats. The persistent quest of
technological dominance, the necessity for increased firepower and mobility, and the desire to
gain decisive tactical and strategic advantages have all fueled the evolution of modern warfare
over its entire history. Modern warfare is constantly changing, with new levels of complexity
introduced with every fight and technological advancement.

THEORY OF WAR

A vast range of concepts, ideas, and principles are included in the theory of war, which aims to
explain the nature, causes, conduct, and outcomes of war. This multidisciplinary field
incorporates elements from political science, sociology, psychology, military history, and other
fields.
A state of armed conflict between nations, states, or factions within a nation is commonly
referred to as war. Extreme violence, hostility, devastation, and fatality are its defining
characteristics. The nature of war is complex, including:

1. Political Nature: The classic quote from Clausewitz reads, "War is the continuation of
politics by other means." It is intrinsically linked to political goals.
2. Violence: Organised violence takes the form of war, which frequently entails extensive
combat activities.
3. Chaos and Uncertainty: Also referred to as the "fog of war," this phrase describes the
uncertainty and disarray that frequently accompanies military operations.
4. Human Elements: A number of variables are important, including warriors' psychological
states, morale, and leadership.

Historical Perspectives

a. Sun Tzu and The Art of War

Sun Tzu’s "The Art of War" is an ancient Chinese military treatise dating back to the 5th century
BCE. It is divided into 13 chapters, each devoted to an aspect of warfare. Key concepts include:

 Deception: “All warfare is based on deception.” This involves misleading the enemy
about one’s intentions and capabilities.
 Strategy: The importance of strategic planning and the indirect approach, such as
avoiding the enemy’s strength and attacking their weakness.
 Flexibility: Adapting to changing circumstances and exploiting opportunities as they
arise.

b. Clausewitz and On War

Carl von Clausewitz, a Prussian general and military theorist, wrote "On War," a seminal work in
military theory. Key ideas include:

 Fog of War: The uncertainty and confusion inherent in military operations.

 Friction: The myriad of small issues and difficulties that complicate military actions.
 Trinity of War: War is a dynamic interplay between the government, the military, and the
people, each influencing the conduct of war.

c. Jomini’s Principles

Antoine-Henri Jomini, a contemporary of Clausewitz, emphasized a more scientific approach to

warfare. Key principles include:

 Lines of Operation: Strategic lines along which forces move and communicate.
 Decisive Points: Key locations or objectives that, if captured, would significantly
influence the outcome of a campaign.

Consequences of War

a. Human Costs

 Casualties: Beyond immediate deaths, war can cause long-term health issues,
disabilities, and mental health disorders like PTSD.
 Displacement: War often results in large-scale refugee movements, creating
humanitarian crises.

b. Economic Costs

 Reconstruction: Post-war rebuilding can take decades and require vast financial
resources.
 Economic Disruption: War can disrupt trade, destroy infrastructure, and lead to
economic downturns.

c. Political and Social Impact

  Power Vacuums: The collapse of regimes can create power vacuums, leading to further
instability and conflict (e.g., post-invasion Iraq).
 Social Changes: War can accelerate social change, such as changes in gender roles due
to women taking on new roles during wartime.

Theoretical Approaches of war

a. Realism

Realism posits that international relations are governed by the self-interest of states, primarily
focused on survival and power. Focus on the anarchic nature of the international system and the
inherent competition for power and security among states.

Key concepts include the security dilemma, balance of power, offensive realism, and defensive
realism.See war as an inevitable outcome of states' pursuit of self-interest and survival in a
hostile environment.

b. Liberalism

Liberalism emphasizes the potential for cooperation among states through international
institutions, democracy, and economic interdependence. It emphasize the role of human agency,
ideology, and international institutions in causing or preventing war. Key concepts include democratic
peace theory, interdependence theory, collective security, and normative theories. Argue that factors,
like shared democratic values, economic interdependence, and international cooperation, can reduce
the likelihood of war.

c. Constructivism

Constructivism focuses on the role of ideas, identities, and norms in shaping international
relations. It Pays attention to how social construction, norms, and identities influence how states
perceive the world and behave.
The social construction of threat, the significance of shared ideas and beliefs, and the function of
language and culture in conflict are important notions.
Make the case that the importance and meaning of war are socially produced and subject to
change throughout time rather than being innate.

CONCLUSION

The study of war theory is a broad and intricate area that includes comprehending the various
causes of warfare, how war is fought, and the far-reaching effects that ensue. We are able to
acquire a thorough grasp of this crucial facet of human existence by looking at both historical
and modern perspectives, investigating different causes, and evaluating the behaviour and
outcomes of conflict. Developing ways to avoid disputes and effectively handle them when they
do emerge requires a grasp of this.

THEORY OF JUST WAR (ACCORDING TO SAINT AUGUSTINE AND SAINT THOMAS

ACQUINAS.)

Just war theory focuses on the justification of wars, either theoretically or historically. The
theoretical aspect focuses on ethical justifications and the forms of warfare. The historical aspect,
or "just war tradition," examines historical rules and agreements applied in wars. International
agreements like the Geneva and Hague conventions limit certain types of warfare. Ethics
examines these conventions for philosophical coherence and potential changes. The just war
tradition also considers the philosophical visions of philosophers and lawyers, examining their
contributions to the evolving conventions guiding war and warfare.
A war that is fought in a particular manner and declared for honourable and just causes is known
as a just war. A war that is "good" in and of itself is not a righteous war. Christians believe that
this battle is "just" or necessary in the given situation, having tried and failed with all other
options. As a final option, it is a necessary evil.
 SAINT THOMAS ACQUINAS
Thomas Aquinas was the first to formulate the just war theory. Among the most important
theologians of the past millennium was Thomas Aquinas. Mediaeval philosopher and theologian
Saint Thomas Aquinas created a thorough philosophy of lawful war in his important treatise
"Summa Theologica." Aquinas outlined requirements that must be fulfilled for a war to be
deemed righteous, building on past Christian philosophy, especially the theories of Augustine of
Hippo. His idea is a component of the broader just war theory tradition, which aims to give
moral guidance for armed combat. The two primary categories of Aquinas's criteria are jus in
bello, or the proper conduct during war, and jus ad bellum, or the right to go to war.

Principles of Jus ad Bellum (Right to Go to War)

1. Legitimate Authority: Only duly constituted public authorities can declare a war. Private
individuals or groups do not have the right to wage war.

2. Just Cause: There must be a just reason for going to war, such as self-defense or
protecting innocent life. A war cannot be waged for motives of aggression, conquest, or
revenge.

3. Right Intention: The intention behind the war must be good. The primary aim should be
to promote good or avoid evil. Ulterior motives, such as power or economic gain, would
invalidate the justness of the war.

4. Probability of Success: There should be a reasonable chance of success. Wars that are
hopeless or likely to result in disproportionate harm should not be fought.

5. Proportionality: The anticipated benefits of waging the war must be proportionate to its
expected harms. The damage inflicted by the war must not exceed the damage being
prevented or rectified.
 6. Last Resort: War should be the last resort after all peaceful alternatives have been tried
and exhausted. Diplomacy, negotiation, and other non-violent means should be attempted
first.

Jus in Bello (Right Conduct in War)

1. Discrimination: Combatants must distinguish between combatants and non-combatants.

Direct attacks on civilians are prohibited. Efforts must be made to avoid or minimize
harm to non-combatants.
2. Proportionality: The violence used in the war must be proportionate to the goals sought.
Excessive or unnecessary violence is forbidden. The force applied must be limited to
what is necessary to achieve legitimate military objectives.
3. Fair Treatment of Prisoners of War: Prisoners of war must be treated humanely.
Torture and other forms of inhumane treatment are prohibited.
4. No Means Malum in Se: Certain means of warfare are intrinsically evil and cannot be
justified under any circumstances. This includes acts such as mass rape, genocide, and the
use of weapons that cause indiscriminate destruction or unnecessary suffering.

Key Points of Aquinas's Just War Theory

 Moral Restraint: Aquinas emphasized the need for moral restraint in warfare, ensuring
that wars are conducted in a way that aligns with Christian ethics.
 Ethical Framework: His criteria provide an ethical framework that aims to limit the
destructiveness of war and protect innocent lives.
 Relevance: Aquinas's theory remains influential in modern discussions about the ethics
of war, informing international laws and the conduct of nations.

Aquinas's theory of just war seeks to balance the harsh realities of conflict with the moral
imperatives of justice and humanity. It provides a nuanced approach to assessing the morality of
war, ensuring that force is used only when absolutely necessary and in a manner that respects
human dignity.
 SAINT AUGUSTINE

Saint Augustine of Hippo, a prominent early Christian theologian and philosopher, laid the
foundational ideas for the Just War Theory, which were later expanded by thinkers like Saint
Thomas Aquinas. Augustine's views on just war are found in various writings, including his
letters and theological works such as "The City of God." His thoughts on war and morality were
deeply influenced by his Christian faith and Roman philosophical traditions.

Augustine's thoughts on just war provided an early moral framework for thinking about the
ethics of war. His ideas stress the importance of justice, peace, and the protection of the innocent.
Augustine's just war theory is deeply rooted in Christian ethics, emphasizing the moral
responsibility of rulers and the necessity of pursuing peace. : Augustine combined Christian
theology with classical Roman philosophical traditions, particularly those of Cicero and other
Roman thinkers who wrote on justice and the role of the state.

Key Principles of Augustine's Just War Theory

1. Legitimate Authority: Augustine asserted that only legitimate authorities, such as rulers
or governments, have the right to wage war. This ensures that wars are conducted by
those responsible for maintaining order and justice in society.
2. Just Cause: Augustine emphasized that a war must have a just cause to be morally
permissible. Common just causes include self-defense, the protection of the innocent, and
the restoration of peace and order. Aggressive wars of conquest or wars fought for
revenge are considered unjust.
3. Right Intention: The intention behind going to war must be righteous. The primary
motive should be to secure peace, protect the innocent, or uphold justice. Personal gain,
power, or vengeance are not legitimate reasons for war.
 4. Last Resort: War should be a last resort, pursued only after all peaceful alternatives have
been exhausted. This principle underscores the importance of seeking non-violent
solutions before resorting to armed conflict.
5. Proportionality: Augustine believed that the means used in war should be proportionate
to the ends sought. The violence and destruction inflicted should not exceed what is
necessary to achieve the just cause. This principle aims to limit unnecessary suffering and
destruction.

Application and Relevance

Augustine's principles laid the groundwork for later developments in just war theory, including
those by Thomas Aquinas. His emphasis on legitimate authority, just cause, right intention, and
proportionality continues to inform contemporary discussions on the morality of war and the
ethical conduct of states. Augustine's ideas also influence modern international law and the rules
of engagement in armed conflict, providing a moral and ethical guide to balancing the harsh
realities of war with the imperatives of justice and humanity.