Module III

RV Institute of Technology & Management ®
MODULE-III
VECTOR SPACE AND LINEAR TRANSFORMATION
Introduction
In this chapter we will introduce the notion of an abstract vector space, which is, ultimately,
a generalization of the ideas inherent in studying vectors in 2- or 3-dimensional space. We will
study vector spaces from an axiomatic perspective, discuss the notions of span and linear
independence, and ultimately explain why every vector space possesses a linearly independent
spanning set called a basis. We will then discuss linear transformations, which are the most natural
kind of a map from one vector space to another, and show how they are intimately related with
matrices. In our discussions we will give concrete examples as often as possible, and use the
general properties we have shown about vector spaces to motivate results relevant to solving
systems of linear equations and solving differential equations.
Topic Learning Objectives:
Upon Completion of this module, students will be able to:
➢ Understand the requisites for a set to be vector space.

➢ Learn to establish linear independence and dependence of set of vectors.
➢ Determine basis and dimension of vector space
➢ Transform vector space from one dimension to other using linear transformation.
➢ Apply rank-Nullity theorem.
➢ Estimate inner product of vectors, orthogonal and orthonormal basis of a vector space
Pre-requisites:
Definition: Group
Let G be a non-empty set(finite/infinite) * be operator satisfying following properties,
1) ∀𝛼, 𝛽 ∈ 𝐺 ⇒ 𝛼 ∗ 𝛽 ∈ 𝐺 (Closure law / Binary operation)
2) ∀𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾 ∈ 𝐺 ⇒ (𝛼 ∗ 𝛽) ∗ 𝛾 = 𝛼 ∗ (𝛽 ∗ 𝛾) (Associative Law)
3) For every 𝛼 ∈ 𝐺 ∃ 𝑒 ∈ 𝐺 such that (𝛼 ∗ 𝑒) = 𝑒 ∗ 𝛼 = 𝛼 (Identity Law)
4) For every 𝛼 ∈ 𝐺 ∃ 𝛼 ′ ∈ 𝐺 such that 𝛼 ∗ 𝛼 ′ = 𝛼 ′ ∗ 𝛼 = 𝑒 (Inverse Law)
II-Semester, Mathematics-I for Computer Science & Engineering stream (BMATS201)
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Then (𝐺,∗) is said to be group

Note: G is an abelian group under * if it satisfies 𝛼 ∗ 𝛽 = 𝛽 ∗ 𝛼 (commutative law)
Example:
i. (Z, +) is a group
ii. (Q, ∙) is a group
iii. (Z, ∙) is not a group
Definition: Field
A set F on a binary operators (∙, +) is said to be field if it satisfies following axioms
1) (F, +) is a group.
2) (F, ∙) is a group.
3) Distributive law: ∀ 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾 ∈ 𝐹, 𝛾. (𝛼 + 𝛽) = 𝛾. 𝛼 + 𝛾. 𝛽
Here triplet (F, +, ∙) is called Field
Definition: Vector Space

Let F be a field and V be a non-empty set. For every ordered pair 𝛼, 𝛽 ∈ 𝑉, let there be defined
uniquely a sum 𝛼 + 𝛽 and ∀ 𝛼 ∈ 𝑉 & 𝑐 ∈ 𝐹, a scalar product 𝑐. 𝛼 ∈ 𝑉. The set 𝑉 is called a vector
space over the field F, if the following axioms are satisfied.
For every 𝛼, 𝛽 ∈ 𝑉 & for every 𝑐, 𝑐 ′ ∈ 𝐹,
1) V is an abelian group under addition.
2) Distributive laws: (i) 𝑐(𝛼 + 𝛽) = 𝑐. 𝛼 + 𝑐. 𝛽 (scalar multiplication is distributive over
vector addition)
(ii) (𝑐 + 𝑐 ′ )𝛼 = 𝑐. 𝛼 + 𝑐 ′ . 𝛼 (multiplication by vector)
3) (𝑐. 𝑐 ′ ). 𝛼 = 𝑐. (𝑐 ′ . 𝛼)
4) 1. 𝛼 = 𝛼, ∀ 𝛼 ∈ 𝑉 and 1 is the unit element of F.
If V is a vector space over field F then it is denoted by V(F).
Note:
1) The elements of vector space V are called vectors and the elements of the field F are called
scalars.
2) The identity element of the group V under addition is denoted by 0 and is called “zero
vector” or “null vector” which is unique.
3) When F=R the field of real numbers, then V(R) is called real vector space.

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4) When F=C the field of Complex numbers, then V(C) is called Complex vector space.
5) The space {0} is called zero space or null space.
6) Last four axioms are satisfied in V means these are also satisfied in subset of V.
7) R is a set of all real numbers then
𝑅 2 = {(𝑥, 𝑦)\𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅}, 𝑅 3 = {(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)/𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝑅}
Problems
1. Let 𝑉 = 𝑅 2 = {(𝑥, 𝑦)/𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅} defined over field (R, +, ∙). Show that V(R) is a vector
space.
Solution: Let us define the vector addition and scalar multiplication for V under R
i) vector addition as (𝛼 + 𝛽) = (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) + (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) = (𝑥1 + 𝑥2 , 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 )
ii) scalar multiplication as 𝑐 ∙ 𝛼 = (𝑐 ∙ 𝑥1 , 𝑐 ∙ 𝑦1 )
1) V is an abelian group under addition.
i. Binary operation
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝛼, 𝛽 ∈ 𝑉 ⇒ 𝛼 = (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ), 𝛽 = (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) where 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ∈ 𝑅
𝛼 + 𝛽 = (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) + (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) = (𝑥1 + 𝑥2 , 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 ) ∈ 𝑅
(V, +) is closed
ii. Associative Law
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾 ∈ 𝑉 ⇒ 𝛼 = (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ), 𝛽 = (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ), 𝛾 = (𝑥3 , 𝑦3 ) where
𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑥3 , 𝑦3 ∈ 𝑅
(𝛼 + 𝛽) + 𝛾 = ((𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) + (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 )) + (𝑥3 , 𝑦3 )
= (𝑥1 + 𝑥2 , 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 ) + (𝑥3 , 𝑦3 )
= (𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 , 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 + 𝑦3 )
𝛼 + (𝛽 + 𝛾) = (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) + ((𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) + (𝑥3 , 𝑦3 ))
= (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) + (𝑥2 + 𝑥3 , 𝑦2 + 𝑦3 )
= (𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 , 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 + 𝑦3 )
⇒ (𝛼 + 𝛽) + 𝛾 = 𝛼 + (𝛽 + 𝛾)
iii. Identity Law
For every 𝛼 = (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) ∈ 𝑉 ∃ 0 = (0,0) ∈ 𝑉 such that
(𝛼 + 0) = (𝑥1 + 0, 𝑦1 + 0) = (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) = 𝛼
Here (0,0) is identity element
iv. Inverse Law
For every 𝛼 = (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) ∈ 𝑉 ∃ 𝛼 −1 = (−𝑥1 , −𝑦1 ) ∈ 𝑉 such that

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(𝛼 + 𝛼 −1 ) = (𝑥1 −𝑥1 , 𝑦1 − 𝑦1 ) = (0,0) = 0 where 0 is identity element in V

v. commutative law
Let 𝛼, 𝛽 ∈ 𝑉 ⇒ 𝛼 = (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ), 𝛽 = (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) where 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ∈ 𝑅
(𝛼 + 𝛽) = (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) + (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) = (𝑥1 + 𝑥2 , 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 )
(𝛽 + 𝛼) = (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) + (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) = (𝑥2 + 𝑥1 , 𝑦2 + 𝑦1 ) = (𝑥1 + 𝑥2 , 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 )
⇒ 𝛼+𝛽 =𝛽+𝛼
2) Distributive laws
i. 𝑐(𝛼 + 𝛽) = 𝑐((𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) + (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 )) = 𝑐(𝑥1 + 𝑥2 , 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 )
= (𝑐 𝑥1 + 𝑐𝑥2 , 𝑐𝑦1 + 𝑐 𝑦2 ) = 𝑐 ∙ (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) + 𝑐 ∙ (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) = 𝑐. 𝛼 + 𝑐. 𝛽
ii. (𝑐 + 𝑐 ′ )𝛼 = (𝑐 + 𝑐 ′ ) ∙ (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) = 𝑐 ∙ (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) + 𝑐 ′ ∙ (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) = 𝑐. 𝛼 + 𝑐 ′ . 𝛼
3) (𝑐 ∙ 𝑐 ′ ) ∙ 𝛼 = (𝑐 ∙ 𝑐 ′ ) ∙ (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) = 𝑐 ∙ (𝑐 ′ ∙ 𝑥1 , 𝑐 ′ ∙ 𝑦1 ) = 𝑐 ∙ (𝑐 ′ ∙ 𝛼)
4) 1. 𝛼 = 1 ∙ (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) = (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) = 𝛼, ∀ 𝛼 ∈ 𝑉 and 1 is the unit element of R.
Hence V(R) is a vector space
2. Show that the set of all matrices of order 2 with their elements as real numbers over a
field of real numbers forms vector space under matrix addition and scalar multiplication
3. Prove that the set 𝑉 = {𝑎 + 𝑏√2 / 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑄} forms vector space w.r.t addition of
polynomial and scalar multiplication of polynomials.
4. Let 𝑝(𝑡) = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑡 + 𝑎2 𝑡 2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑡 𝑛 be a polynomial of degree n and let 𝑉 =
{𝑝(𝑡)/𝑎𝑖 ∈ 𝑅} where R is a field of real numbers. Prove that V(R) is a vector space with
operations
i) vector addition as 𝑝(𝑡) + 𝑞(𝑡)
= (𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑡 + 𝑎2 𝑡 2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑡 𝑛 ) + (𝑏0 + 𝑏1 𝑡 + 𝑏2 𝑡 2 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑛 𝑡 𝑛 )
= ((𝑎0 + 𝑏0 ) + (𝑎1 + 𝑏1 )𝑡 + (𝑎2 + 𝑏2 )𝑡 2 + ⋯ + (𝑎𝑛 + 𝑏𝑛 )𝑡 𝑛 )
ii) scalar multiplication as 𝑘. 𝑝(𝑡) = 𝑘. 𝑎0 + 𝑘. 𝑎1 𝑡 + 𝑘. 𝑎2 𝑡 2 + ⋯ + 𝑘. 𝑎𝑛 𝑡 𝑛
Subspaces:
Definition:
A non-empty sub set W of a vector space V over a field F is called a subspace of V if W is itself
a vector space over F, under the same operations of addition and scalar multiplication as defined
in V.
Note: Two special examples of subspaces of any vector space V over F are

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(i) The set {0} consisting of zero vector of V.

(ii) The whole vector space V.
These two subspaces are called trivial or improper subspaces of V. Any subspace W of V
different from {0} and V is called a proper subspace of V.
Theorem:
A non-empty subset W of a vector space V over a field F is a subspace of V if and only if
(i)  ,   W,  +   W
(ii) For c  F,   W ⇒ c.  W
[i.e., A non-empty subspace W of a vector space V is a subspace of V if and only if W is closed

under vector addition and scalar multiplication.]
Proof: Suppose W is a subspace of V. Then W is a vector space over F under the operation of
addition and scalar multiplication as defined in V.
Hence the conditions (i) and (ii) hold good.
Conversely, Suppose W satisfies (i) and (ii) we shall show that W is a

subspace of V.
The condition (i) ∀𝛼, 𝛽 ∈ 𝑊 ⇒ 𝛼 + 𝛽 ∈ 𝑊
⇒ + is a binary operation on W. Therefore 𝑊 ≠ 𝜙
And by (ii) c  F,   W ⇒ c.  W
In particular, if c = 0  F,   W ⇒ 0. = 0 W
if c = -1  F,   W ⇒ (-1) = - W,    W
Further as + is both commutative and associative in V, so in W.
Thus (W, +) is an abelian group. The other axioms of the vector space hold in W as
they hold in the whole space V. Hence W is a vector space over F and therefore a
subspace of V.
Theorem: A non-empty subset W is a subspace of a vector space V over F if and only

if a + b  W,  ,   W, a, b  F.
Proof: Let W be a subspace of V

Let a, b  F and ,   W by above theorem a, b  W and hence a + b  W. Conversely,

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Let a + b  W,  ,   W, a, b  F
Let a = 1 and b = 1, then 1. + 1. =  +   W  ,   W
Thus W is closed under vector addition.
Now take  = 0 then a + b.0 = a  W,    W, a  F
Thus W is closed under scalar multiplication
Hence W is subspace of V.
Note: Every vector space and hence, every subspace of a vector space, contains the zero vector,
and every subspace therefore has at least one subspace, it is closed under vector addition, and it is
closed under scalar multiplication. Any scalar times the zero vector is the zero vector.
Theorem: The intersection of any two subspaces of a vector space V over a field F is also a
subspace of V.
Proof: Let S and T be any two subspaces of the vector space V over the field F.
Now 𝑆 ∩ 𝑇 = {𝛼/𝛼 ∈ 𝑆 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝛼 ∈ 𝑇}
Since S and T are subspaces, 0 ∈ 𝑆 𝑎𝑛𝑑 0 ∈ 𝑇
Therefore 0  ST ⟹ ST  
We shall show that for every 𝛼, 𝛽 ∈ 𝑆 ∩ 𝑇, 𝑎𝛼 + 𝑏𝛽 ∈ 𝑆 ∩ 𝑇 ∀ 𝛼, 𝛽 ∈ 𝐹
𝛼, 𝛽 ∈ 𝑆 ∩ 𝑇 ⇒ 𝛼, 𝛽 ∈ 𝑆 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝛼, 𝛽 ∈ 𝑇
⇒ 𝑎𝛼 + 𝑏𝛽 ∈ 𝑆 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝛼 + 𝑏𝛽 ∈ 𝑇 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐹
⇒ 𝑎𝛼 + 𝑏𝛽 ∈ 𝑆 ∩ 𝑇
Hence 𝑆 ∩ 𝑇 is a subspace of V.
Note:
(1) The result of the above theorem can be extended to any number of subspaces. i.e., if
𝑆1 , 𝑆2 , 𝑆3 , . . . , 𝑆𝑛 are n subspaces of 𝑉, then ⋂𝑛𝑖=1 𝑆𝑖 is also a subspace of 𝑉.
(2) The union of two subspaces of a vector space V need not be a subspace of 𝑉.
Problems
1. Let 𝑉 = 𝑅 3 , the vector space of all ordered triples of real numbers over the field of real
numbers. Show that the subset 𝑊 = {(𝑥, 0, 0)/𝑥 ∈ 𝑅} is a subspace of 𝑅 3 .
Solution: Let 𝑎1 = (𝑥1 , 0, 0), 𝑎2 = (𝑥2 , 0, 0)be any two elements of W.

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Then 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 = (𝑥1 , 0, 0) + (𝑥2 , 0, 0)

= (𝑥1 + 𝑥2 , 0, 0) ∈ 𝑊
Therefore W is closed under addition.
Again for any scalar aR=F, 𝑎𝑎1 = 𝑎(𝑥1 , 0, 0) = (𝑎𝑥1 , 0, 0) ∈
𝑊
Therefore W is closed under scalar multiplication
Hence W is a subspace of R3
2. Prove that the set 𝑊 = {(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)/𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 4𝑧 = 0}of vector space
𝑉3 (𝑅) is a subspace of 𝑉3 (𝑅).
Solution: Let 𝑎1 = (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ), 𝑎2 = (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ) be any two elements of W such that
𝑥1 − 3𝑦1 + 4𝑧1 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥2 − 3𝑦2 + 4𝑧2 = 0.
Then 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 = (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) + (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ) = (𝑥1 + 𝑥2 , 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 , 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 )
(𝑥1 + 𝑥2 ) − 3(𝑦1 + 𝑦2 ) + 4(𝑧1 + 𝑧2 ) = (𝑥1 − 3𝑦1 + 4𝑧1 ) + ( 𝑥2 − 3𝑦2 + 4𝑧2 ) = 0
⇒ 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 ∈ 𝑊
Therefore 𝑊 is closed under addition.
Again for any scalar aR
𝑎𝑎1 = 𝑎(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) = (𝑎𝑥1 , 𝑎𝑦1 , 𝑎𝑧1 )

𝑎𝑥1 − 3𝑎𝑦1 + 4𝑎𝑧1 = 𝑎(𝑥1 − 3𝑦1 + 4𝑧1 ) = 𝑎. 0 = 0
⇒ 𝑎𝑎1 ∈ 𝑊
Therefore 𝑊 is closed under scalar multiplication
Hence 𝑊 is a subspace of 𝑉3 (𝑅)

3. Which of the following sets of vectors 𝑎 = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3, … , 𝑎𝑛 ) in Rn are
subspaces of 𝑅 𝑛 (𝑛 ≥ 3).
(a) all 𝑎 such that 𝑎1 ≥ 0.

(b) all 𝑎 such that 𝑎1 + 3𝑎2 = 𝑎3
(c) all 𝑎 such that 𝑎2 . 𝑎1 = 0
(d) all 𝑎 such that a2 is rational.
Solution: (a) Let 𝑊 = {𝑎: 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅 𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎1 ≥ 0}.

Let 𝑎 = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , . . . , 𝑎𝑛 ), 𝑏 = (𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 , . . . , 𝑏𝑛 ) ∈ 𝑊, where 𝑎𝑖 , 𝑏𝑖 ≥ 0.
Now for 𝑐, 𝑑 ∈ 𝑅, we have
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𝑐𝑎 + 𝑑𝑏 = 𝑐(𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , . . . , 𝑎𝑛 ) + 𝑑(𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 , . . . , 𝑏𝑛 )
= (𝑐𝑎1 + 𝑑𝑏1 , 𝑐𝑎2 + 𝑑𝑏2 , 𝑐𝑎3 + 𝑑𝑏3 , . . . , 𝑐𝑎𝑛 + 𝑑𝑏𝑛 ) ∉ 𝑊
Then for 𝑐, 𝑑 ∈ 𝑅, we have 𝑐𝑎 + 𝑑𝑏 ∉ 𝑊
Because if 𝑎1 = 3, 𝑏1 = 4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 = −1, 𝑑 = −2.
Then 𝑐 𝑎1 + 𝑑 𝑏1 = −3 – 8 = −11 < 0.
Hence W is not a subspace of 𝑅 𝑛 .
(b) Let 𝑊 = {𝑎: 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅 𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎1 + 3 𝑎2 = 𝑎3 }
Let 𝑎 = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , . . . , 𝑎𝑛 ), 𝑏 = (𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 , … , 𝑏𝑛 ) ∈ 𝑊,
where 𝑎1 + 3 𝑎2 = 𝑎3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏1 + 3 𝑏2 = 𝑏3 .

𝑐𝑎 + 𝑑𝑏 = 𝑐(𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … , 𝑎𝑛 ) + 𝑑(𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 , … , 𝑏𝑛 )
= (𝑐𝑎1 + 𝑑𝑏1 , 𝑐𝑎2 + 𝑑𝑏2 , 𝑐𝑎3 + 𝑑𝑏3 , … . , 𝑐𝑎𝑛 + 𝑑𝑏𝑛 )
We have 𝑐𝑎1 + 𝑑𝑏1 + 3(𝑐𝑎2 + 𝑑𝑏2 ) = 𝑐(𝑎1 + 3𝑎2 ) + 𝑑(𝑏1 + 3𝑏2 ) = 𝑐𝑎3 + 𝑑𝑏3
Thus 𝑐𝑎 + 𝑑𝑏 ∈ 𝑊
Hence 𝑊is a subspace of 𝑅 𝑛 .
(c) Let 𝑊 = {𝑎: 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅 𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎2 . 𝑎1 = 0}
Let 𝑎 = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , . . . , 𝑎𝑛 ), 𝑏 = (𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 , . . . , 𝑏𝑛 ) ∈ 𝑊, where 𝑎2 . 𝑎1 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏2 . 𝑏1 = 0.

= (𝑐𝑎1 + 𝑑𝑏1 , 𝑐𝑎2 + 𝑑𝑏2 , 𝑐𝑎3 + 𝑑𝑏3 , … , 𝑐𝑎𝑛 + 𝑑𝑏𝑛 ),
we have (𝑐𝑎1 + 𝑑𝑏1 ) (𝑐𝑎2 + 𝑑𝑏2 ) ≠ 0 for
𝑎2 . 𝑎1 = 0, 𝑏2 . 𝑏1 = 0
Thus 𝑐𝑎 + 𝑑𝑏 ∉ 𝑊.
Hence 𝑊is not a subspace of 𝑅 𝑛
(d) Let 𝑊 = {𝑎: 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅 𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎2 𝑖𝑠𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙}
Let 𝑎 = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … , 𝑎𝑛 ), 𝑏 = (𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 , . . . , 𝑏𝑛 ) ∈ 𝑊, where 𝑎2 , 𝑏2 are rationals.

P a g e 8 | 33

= (𝑐𝑎1 + 𝑑𝑏1 , 𝑐𝑎2 + 𝑑𝑏2 , 𝑐𝑎3 + 𝑑𝑏3 , … , 𝑐𝑎𝑛 + 𝑑𝑏𝑛 ).
Hence (𝑐𝑎2 + 𝑑𝑏2 )is not always rational.
Thus 𝑐𝑎 + 𝑑𝑏 ∉ 𝑊.
 Let 𝑉be the (real) vector space of all functions 𝑓 from 𝑅 in to 𝑅. Which of the following
sets of functions are subspaces of 𝑉 
(a) all 𝑓such that 𝑓(𝑥 2 ) = [𝑓(𝑥)]2
(b) all 𝑓 such that 𝑓(0) = 𝑓(1)

(c) all 𝑓 such that 𝑓(3) = 1 + 𝑓(−5)
(d) all 𝑓 such that 𝑓(−1) = 0
(e) all 𝑓 which are continuous.
Solution: (a) Let 𝑊 = {𝑓: 𝑓 ∈ 𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑓(𝑥 2 ) = [𝑓(𝑥)]2 }.
Let 𝑓, 𝑔 ∈ 𝑊. Then 𝑓(𝑥 2 ) = [𝑓(𝑥)]2 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑔(𝑥 2 ) = [𝑔(𝑥)]2 .
Now for 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅, we have
(𝑎𝑓 + 𝑏𝑔)(𝑥 2 ) = (𝑎𝑓) (𝑥 2 ) + (𝑏𝑔)(𝑥 2 )

= 𝑎𝑓(𝑥 2 ) + 𝑏𝑔(𝑥 2 )
𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑎𝑓 + 𝑏𝑔)(𝑥 2 ) = [𝑎𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑏𝑔(𝑥)]2 = 𝑎2 [𝑓(𝑥)]2 + 𝑏 2 [𝑔(𝑥)]2 + 2𝑎𝑏𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)
𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠 (𝑎𝑓 + 𝑏𝑔)(𝑥 2 ) ≠ [𝑎𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑏𝑔(𝑥)]2
⇒ (𝑎𝑓 + 𝑏𝑔) ∉ 𝑊.
Hence 𝑊 is not a sub-space of 𝑉.
(b) Let 𝑊 = {𝑓: 𝑓 ∈ 𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑓(0) = 𝑓(1)}.
Let 𝑓, 𝑔 ∈ 𝑊. Then 𝑓(0) = 𝑓(1) and 𝑔(0) = 𝑔(1)
Now for 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅, 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 (𝑎𝑓 + 𝑏𝑔)(0) = 𝑎𝑓(0) + 𝑏𝑔(0)
= 𝑎𝑓(1) + 𝑏𝑔(1) Using (1)
⇒ (𝑎𝑓 + 𝑏𝑔) ∈ 𝑊.
Hence 𝑊 is a subspace of 𝑉.

P a g e 9 | 33
(c) Let 𝑊 = {𝑓: 𝑓 ∈ 𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑓(3) = 1 + 𝑓(−5)}.

Let 𝑓, 𝑔 ∈ 𝑊. Then 𝑓(3) = 1 + 𝑓(−5) 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑔(3) = 1 + 𝑔(−5) (1)
(𝑎𝑓 + 𝑏𝑔)(3) = 𝑎𝑓(3) + 𝑏𝑔(3) = 𝑎{(1 + 𝑓(−5)} + 𝑏{(1 + 𝑔(−5)} Using (1)
= (𝑎 + 𝑏) + (𝑎𝑓 + 𝑏𝑔)(−5) ≠ 1 + (𝑎𝑓 + 𝑏𝑔)(−5)
Thus (𝑎𝑓 + 𝑏𝑔) ∉ 𝑊
Hence 𝑊 is not a subspace of 𝑉.
(d) Let 𝑊 = {𝑓: 𝑓 ∈ 𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑓(−1) = 0}.
Let𝑓, 𝑔 ∈ 𝑊. Then 𝑓(−1) = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔(−1) = 0
(𝑎𝑓 + 𝑏𝑔)(−1) = 𝑎𝑓(−1) + 𝑏𝑔(−1) = 𝑎. 0 + 𝑏. 0 = 0 Using (1)
⇒ (𝑎𝑓 + 𝑏𝑔) ∈ 𝑊.
Hence 𝑊is a subspace of 𝑉.
(e) Let 𝑊 = {𝑓: 𝑓 ∈ 𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠}.
Let 𝑓, 𝑔 ∈ 𝑊. Then 𝑓, 𝑔 are continuous.
(𝑎𝑓 + 𝑏𝑔) is also continuous { since 𝑓, 𝑔 are continuous}
⇒ (𝑎𝑓 + 𝑏𝑔) ∈ 𝑊.
Hence 𝑊 is a subspace of 𝑉
Linear combination and linear span of a set
Linear combination:
Definition: Let V be a vector space over a field F. The linear combination of a vector 𝑣 ∈ 𝑉 in
terms of other vectors 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 , 𝑢4 , … , 𝑢𝑛 ∈ 𝑉, where 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , 𝑐3 , 𝑐4 , … , 𝑐𝑛 ∈ 𝐹, is given by
𝑣 = 𝑐1 𝑢1 + 𝑐2 𝑢2 + 𝑐3 𝑢3 + 𝑐4 𝑢4 + ⋯ +𝑐𝑛 𝑢𝑛
Problems:
P a g e 10 | 33
1. Consider the vectors 𝑢1 = (−1,3, −1), 𝑢2 = (−1, 2, 3) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢3 = (1, 0, 1) of the vector
space R3. Find the vector when it is expressed as linear combination 𝑣 = 2𝑢1 − 𝑢2 − 3𝑢3
Solution: 𝑣 = 2(−1, 3, −1) − (−1, 2, 3) − 3(1, 0, 1)
𝑣 = (−2, 6, −2) − (−1, 2, 3) − (3, 0, 3) = (−2 + 1 − 3, 6 − 2 − 0, −2 − 3 − 3)
𝒗 = (−4, 4, −8)
is a linear combination of the vectors 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢3 .By choosing different set of scalars different
linear combinations of 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢3 can be formed.
2. Express 𝑣 = (3,7, −4) in 𝑅 3 as a linear combination of vectors 𝑢1 = (1,2,3), 𝑢2 =
(2, 3, 7) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢3 = (3, 5, 6)
Solution: Let 𝑣 = 𝑐1 𝑢1 + 𝑐2 𝑢2 + 𝑐3 𝑢3
𝑣 = (3,7, −4) = 𝑐1 (1,2,3) + 𝑐2 (2, 3, 7) + 𝑐3 (3, 5, 6)
(3,7, −4) = (𝑐1 + 2𝑐2 + 3𝑐3 , 2𝑐1 + 3𝑐2 + 5𝑐3 , 𝑐1 + 7𝑐2 + 6𝑐3 )
3 = 𝑐1 + 2𝑐2 + 3𝑐3
7 = 2𝑐1 + 3𝑐2 + 5𝑐3
−4 = 𝑐1 + 7𝑐2 + 6𝑐3
To Solve above system of equations, we first check for consistency and solve by Gauss-
elimination method,
1 2 3∶3
[𝐴: 𝐵] = [2 3 5∶7]
3 7 6: −4
𝑅2′ → 𝑅2 − 2𝑅1 , R′3 → 𝑅3 − 3𝑅1
1 2 3∶3
[𝐴: 𝐵]~ [0 −1 −1 ∶ 11 ]
0 1 −3: −13
𝑅3′ → 𝑅3 + 𝑅2
1 2 3∶3
[𝐴: 𝐵]~ [0 −1 −1 ∶ 1 ]
0 0 −4: −12
The above system is consistent and has unique solution
Solving using back substitution
−4𝑐3 = −12 ⇒ 𝑐3 = 3
−𝑐2 − 𝑐3 = 1 ⇒ 𝑐2 = −1 − 𝑐3 ⇒ 𝑐2 = −4.
𝑐1 − 2𝑐2 + 3𝑐3 = 3 ⇒ 𝑐1 = (3 + 2𝑐2 + 3𝑐3 ) = (3 − 9 + 8) ⇒ 𝑐1 = 2.
𝑐3 = 3, 𝑐2 = −4, 𝑐1 = 2
Thus 𝑣 can be expressed as linear combination of 𝑣 = 2𝑢1 − 4𝑢2 + 3𝑢3
P a g e 11 | 33
3. Express 𝑣 = (1, −2, 5) in 𝑅 3 as a linear combination of 𝑢1 = (1,1,1), 𝑢2 =

(1,2, 3) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢3 = (2, −1,1)
𝑣 = (1, −2,5) = 𝑐1 (1,1,1) + 𝑐2 (1,2, 3) + 𝑐3 (2, −1, 1)
(1, −2,5) = (𝑐1 + 𝑐2 + 2𝑐3 , 𝑐1 + 2𝑐2 − 𝑐3 , 𝑐1 + 3𝑐2 + 𝑐3 )
1 = 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 + 2𝑐3
−2 = 𝑐1 + 2𝑐2 − 𝑐3
5 = 𝑐1 + 3𝑐2 + 𝑐3
elimination method,
1 1 2∶1
[𝐴: 𝐵] = [1 2 −1: −2]
1 3 1: −4
𝑅2′ → 𝑅2 − 𝑅1 , R′3 → 𝑅3 − 𝑅1
1 1 2∶1
~ [0 1 −3: −3]
0 2 −1: 4
𝑅3′ → 𝑅3 − 2𝑅2
1 1 2 ∶1
~ [0 1 −3 ∶ −3]
0 0 5 ∶ 10
The above system is consistent and has unique solution
Solving using back substitution
𝑐3 = 2, 𝑐2 = 3, 𝑐1 = −6
Thus 𝑣 can be expressed as linear combination of 𝑣 = −6𝑢1 + 3𝑢2 + 2𝑢3
4. Express 𝑣 = (2, −5, 3) in 𝑅 3 as a linear combination of 𝑢1 = (1, −3,2), 𝑢2 =
(2, −4, −1) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢3 = (1, −5,7)
𝑣 = (2, −5,3) = 𝑐1 (1, −3,2) + 𝑐2 (2, −4, −1) + 𝑐3 (1, −5, 7)
2 = 𝑐1 + 2𝑐2 + 𝑐3
−5 = −3𝑐1 − 4𝑐2 − 5𝑐3
3 = 2𝑐1 − 𝑐2 + 7𝑐3
elimination method,

P a g e 12 | 33
1 2 1∶2
[𝐴: 𝐵] = [−3 −4 −5: −5]
2 −1 7: 3
𝑅2′ → 𝑅2 + 3𝑅1 , R′3 → 𝑅3 − 2𝑅1
1 2 1∶2
[𝐴: 𝐵]~ [0 2 −2: 11]
0 −5 5: −7
𝑅3′ → 2𝑅3 + 5𝑅2
1 2 1∶2
[𝐴: 𝐵]~ [0 2 −2: 11]
0 0 0: 41
The above system is inconsistent and has no solution
Thus 𝑣 cannot be expressed as linear combination of (𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 )
5. Express matrix M as a linear combination of matrices A, B and C given
4 7 1 1 1 2 1 1
𝑀=[ ], 𝐴 = [ ], 𝐵 = [ ] and 𝐶 = [ ]
7 9 1 1 3 4 4 5
6. Express the polynomial 𝑣 = 𝑡 2 + 4𝑡 − 3 in 𝑝(𝑡) as a linear combination of 𝑝1 = 𝑡 2 −
2𝑡 + 5, 𝑝2 = 2𝑡 2 − 3𝑡 and 𝑝3 = 𝑡 + 3
Answers:
5) 𝑣 = 2𝐴 + 3𝐵 − 𝐶 6) 𝑝 = −3𝑝1 + 2𝑝2 + 4𝑝3
Linear span of a set:
Definition:
Let S be a non empty subset of a vector space V(F). The set of all linear combinations of finite
number of elements of S is called the linear span of S and is denoted by L[S].
i.e., 𝐿[𝑆] = {𝑐1 𝑢1 + 𝑐2 𝑢2 + 𝑐3 𝑢3 + 𝑐4 𝑢4 + ⋯ . +𝑐𝑛 𝑢𝑛 /𝑐𝑖 ∈ 𝐹, 𝑢𝑖 ∈ 𝑆, 𝑖 = 1,2,3, … , 𝑛}
If 𝑣 ∈ 𝐿[𝑆], then 𝑣 is of the form 𝑣 = 𝑐1 𝑢1 + 𝑐2 𝑢2 + 𝑐3 𝑢3 + 𝑐4 𝑢4 + ⋯ . +𝑐𝑛 𝑢𝑛 for some
scalars 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , 𝑐3 , 𝑐4 , . . . , 𝑐𝑛 ∈ 𝐹.
Note: If S is a non-empty subset of a vector space V(F), then L[S] is the smallest sub space of
V containing S.
Problems
P a g e 13 | 33
1. Express the vector (3, 5, 2) as a linear combination of the vectors (1, 1, 0), (2, 3, 0), (0, 0,
1) of V3(R).
Solution: Let (3, 5, 2) = 𝑐1 (1, 1, 0) + 𝑐2 (2, 3, 0) + 𝑐3 (0, 0, 1)
= (𝑐1 , c1 , 0) + (2𝑐2 , 3c2 , 0) + (0, 0, c3 )
⇒ (3, 5, 2) = (𝑐1 + 2𝑐2 , c1 + 3𝑐2 , c3 )

⇒ 𝑐1 + 2𝑐2 = 3 -------(1)
𝑐1 + 3𝑐2 = 5, -------(2)
𝑐3 = 2
Solving (1) & (2), we obtain
⇒ 𝑐1 = −1, c2 = 2, c3 = 2.
(3, 5, 2) = −1(1, 1, 0) + 2(2, 3, 0) + 2(0, 0, 1)
2. Find the subspace spanned by set 𝑆 = {(1,0,0), (0,1,0)} of a vector space 𝑉3 (𝑅)
Solution: Let (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) ∈ 𝑉3 (𝑅)
Given 𝐿(𝑆) = {𝑐1 𝑢1 + 𝑐2 𝑢2 } = {𝑐1 (1,0,0) + 𝑐2 (0,1,0)} = {(𝑐1 , 0,0) + (0, 𝑐2 , 0)}
𝐿(𝑆) = {(𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , 0)} is a subspace spanned by 𝑢1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢2
3. Let V=𝑅 3 . Show that 𝑤1 = (1, 1, 1), 𝑤1 = (1, 1, 0), 𝑤1 = (1, 0, 0) spans R (or every
element 𝑣 = (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) ∈ 𝑅 3 can be expressed as linear combination of 𝑤1 , 𝑤2 , 𝑤3)
Solution: Let 𝑣 = 𝑥𝑤1 + 𝑦 𝑤2 + 𝑧 𝑤3 where 𝑣 ∈ 𝑅 3
⇒ (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) = 𝑥(1, 1, 1)+𝑦(1, 1, 0) + 𝑧(1, 0, 0)
⇒ (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) = (𝑥, 𝑥, 𝑥)+(𝑦, 𝑦, 0) + (𝑧, 0, 0)
⇒ (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) = (𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧, 𝑥 + 𝑦, 𝑥)
⇒ 𝑎 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧, 𝑏 = 𝑥 + 𝑦, 𝑐 = 𝑥
Now express (x, y, z) in terms of (a, b, c) to get linear combination of 𝑤1 , 𝑤2 , 𝑤3
𝒙=𝒄
𝑏 =𝑥+𝑦 ⇒𝒚=𝒃−𝒄
𝑎 =𝑥+𝑦+𝑧 ⇒𝒛=𝒂−𝒃
P a g e 14 | 33
∴ 𝑣 = (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) = 𝑥𝑤1 + 𝑦 𝑤2 + 𝑧 𝑤3 = 𝑐𝑤1 + (𝑏 − 𝑐) 𝑤2 + (𝑎 − 𝑏) 𝑤3
4. Find the span of subset 𝑆 ′ = {(1,2), (0,1)} of a vector space 𝑉2 (𝑅) and also prove that
(3, 7) belongs to the span 𝑆 ′ .
5. Show that the vector (2, −5, 3) does not belong to the span of 𝑆=
{(1, −3, 2), (2, −4, 1), (1, −5, 7)}.
6. For V=𝑅 3 over the field R, prove that 𝑒1 = (1,0,0), 𝑒2 = (0,1,0), 𝑒3 = (0,0,1) spans
every element 𝑣 = (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) ∈ 𝑅 3
7. Show that 𝑢1 = (1, 1, 1), 𝑢2 = (1, 2, 3), 𝑢3 = (1, 5, 8) spans 𝑉3 (𝑅)
Linearly independent and dependent vectors
Definition: A set {𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 , . . . , 𝑢𝑛 }of vectors of a vector space V[F] is said to be linearly
dependent if there exist scalars 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , 𝑐3 , … , 𝑐𝑛 ∈ 𝐹, not all zero such that 𝑐1 𝑢1 + c2 𝑢2 +
𝑐3 𝑢3 + . . . + c𝑛 𝑢𝑛 = 0.
A set {𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 , . . . , 𝑢𝑛 } of vectors of a vector space V[F] is said to be linearly independent if
there exist scalars 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , 𝑐3 , … , 𝑐𝑛 ∈ 𝐹, such that 𝑐1 𝑢1 + c2 𝑢2 + 𝑐3 𝑢3 + . . . + c𝑛 𝑢𝑛 = 0.
⇒ 𝑐1 = 𝑐2 = 𝑐3 =...= c𝑛 = 0.
Problems:
1. Show that the vectors 𝑢1 = (1, 0, 0, 0, . . . ,0), 𝑢2 = (0, 1, 0, 0, 0, . . . ,0),…
𝑢𝑛 = (0, 0, 0,0,0 , . . . ,1) of the vector space 𝑉𝑛 (𝑅) are linearly independent.
Solution: Consider 𝑐1 𝑢1 + c2 𝑢2 + 𝑐3 𝑢3 + … + c𝑛 𝑢𝑛 = 0. where 𝑐𝑖 ∈ 𝑅, 𝑢𝑖 ∈ 𝑉𝑛 (𝑅)
⇒ 𝑐1 (1, 0, 0, 0, 0, … ,0) + 𝑐2 (0, 1, 0, 0, 0, … ,0) + 𝑐3 (0, 0, 1,0,0, . . . ,0)
+ ⋯ + c𝑛 (0, 0, 0, 0, 0, . . . ,1) = (0, 0, 0,0,0, . . . , 0)
⇒ (𝑐1 , 0, 0, 0, 0, … ,0) + (0, c2 , 0, 0, 0 … … .0) + (0,0, 𝑐3 , 0,0, . . . , 0)
+. . . + (0, 0, 0, 0, 0, … , 𝑐𝑛 ) = (0, 0, 0,0,0, . . . ,0)

P a g e 15 | 33
⇒ (𝑐1 , c2 , c3 , . . . , 𝑐𝑛 ) = (0, 0, 0,0,0, … ,0)
⇒ 𝑐1 = 0, 𝑐2 = 0, 𝑐3 = 0, . . . , 𝑐𝑛 = 0
Therefore 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 , . . . , 𝑢𝑛 are linearly independent.
2. Show that the set S = {(1, 0, 1), (1, 1,0), (-1, 0, - 1)} is linearly dependent in V3(R).
Solution: Consider 𝑐1 𝑢1 + 𝑐2 𝑢2 + 𝑐3 𝑢3 = 0
⇒ 𝑐1 (1, 0, 1) + 𝑐2 (1, 1, 0) + 𝑐3 (−1, 0, −1) = (0,0,0)
⇒ (𝑐1 + c2 – 𝑐3 , c2 , c1 − c3 ) = (0, 0, 0)
⇒ 𝑐1 + c2 – 𝑐3 = 0, 𝑐2 = 0, 𝑐1 − 𝑐3 = 0
Thus, there exist not all zero scalars such that
𝑐1 (1, 0, 1) + 𝑐2 (1, 1, 0) + 𝑐3 (−1, 0, −1) = (0, 0, 0)
i.e., for 𝑐1 = 1
1(1, 0, 1) + 0(1, 1, 0) + 1(−1, 0, −1) = (0, 0,0)
Therefore the given set is linearly dependent.
Note:
(1) To check whether the given set of vectors are linearly independent or not consider augmented
matrix [𝐴: 𝐵] and find 𝜌(𝐴)𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜌(𝐴: 𝐵). If 𝜌(𝐴) = 𝜌(𝐴: 𝐵) = 𝑛 (number of scalars) then set is
linearly independent else If 𝜌(𝐴) = 𝜌(𝐴: 𝐵) < 𝑛 then set is linearly dependent.
(2) The null set  is considered to be linearly independent.
(3) An infinite sub set S of a vector space V[F] is said to be linearly independent if every finite
sub set of S is linearly independent.
3. If , ,  are linearly independent in V(F), prove that the vectors  + ,  - ,  - 2 +
 are also linearly independent.
Solution: Let a, b, c  F such that a( + ) + b( - ) + c( - 2 + ) = 0

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⟹ a( + ) + b( - ) + c( - 2 + ) = 0

⟹ (a + b +c) + (a – b – 2c)  + c = 0
But , ,  are linearly independent.
Therefore a + b +c = 0
a – b – 2c = 0
c=0
⇒ a = 0, b = 0, c = 0
Hence (1) holds only if a = 0, b = 0, c = 0, which shows that the vectors +, -, -2+
are linearly independent.
4. Show that the vectors (1, 1, 2, 4), (2, -1, -5, 2), (1, -1, -4, 0) and (2, 1, 1, 6) are linearly
independent in R4 and extract a linearly independent subset.
Solution: Let 𝑥1 = (1, 1, 2, 4), 𝑥2 = (2, −1, −5, 2), 𝑥3 = (1, −1, −4, 0) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥4 = (2, 1, 1, 6)
Let 𝑎𝑥1 + 𝑏𝑥2 + 𝑐𝑥3 + 𝑑𝑥4 = 0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 ∈ 𝑅
⇒ a (1, 1, 2, 4) + b (2, -1, -5, 2) + c (1, -1, -4, 0) + d (2, 1, 1, 6) = 0
⇒ (a + 2b + c + 2d, a – b – c + d, 2a – 5b – 4c + d, 4a + 2b + 6d) = 0
⇒ a + 2b + c + 2d = 0
a–b–c+d=0
2a – 5b – 4c + d = 0
4a + 2b + 6d = 0
Solving above equations, we get a = b = c = d = 0. Hence the given vectors are linearly
independent.
5. Show that set {1, 𝑥, 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 } is a linearly independent set of vectors in the vector
space of all polynomials over the real numbers field.
6. Verify whether the vectors 𝑢1 = (1, 0, 0), 𝑢2 = (0, 1, 0), 𝑢3 = (0, 0, 1)and 𝑢4 = (1, 1, 1)
in 𝑉3 (𝑅) are linearly independent set or not

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7. Prove that the vectors 𝑢1 = (1, 2, −3), 𝑢2 = (1, −3, 2), 𝑢3 = (2, −1, 3) forms a linearly
independent set.
8. If V(R) is a vector space of 2 × 3 matrices over R, then show that vectors 𝑢1 =
2 1 −1 1 1 −3 4 −1 2
[ ], 𝑢 = [ ], 𝑢3 = [ ] forms linearly independent set.
3 −2 4 2 −2 0 5 1 −2 3
Answers
6) Linearly dependent
Basis and dimension
Definition: A subset B of a vector space V is said to be the basis for V if
i. B is linearly independent set
ii. B spans V
It is denoted by L(B)=V
The number of elements in basis B gives dimension of V and it is denoted by d[V] or dim[V].
Finite dimensional vector spaces:
Definition: A vector space V[F] is said to be a finite dimensional space if it has a finite basis,
otherwise, it is called an infinite dimensional space.
Note:
1) The basis S = {(1, 0, 0,…,0), (0, 1, 0,…,0), (0, 0, 1,…,0), (0, 0,0,…,1)} is called as standard
basis and it is denoted by 𝑒1 = (1, 0, 0, … ,0), 𝑒2 = (0, 1, 0, … ,0), … . 𝑒𝑛 = (0, 0, 0, … ,1)
In particular, 𝑒1 =(1, 0, 0), 𝑒2 = (0, 1, 0), 𝑒3 = (0, 0, 1) is standard basis of V3[R] &
𝑒1 = (1, 0, 0, 0), 𝑒2 = (0, 1, 0, 0), 𝑒3 = (0, 0, 1, 0), 𝑒4 = (0, 0, 0, 1) is standard basis of
V4[R].
2) If 𝑊1 &𝑊2 are finite dimensional subspaces of V, then that 𝑊1 + 𝑊2 is finite dimensional
and 𝑑𝑖𝑚 𝑊1 + 𝑑𝑖𝑚 𝑊2 = dim(𝑊1 + 𝑊2 ) + 𝑑𝑖𝑚(𝑊1 ∩ 𝑊2 ). {𝑜𝑟 dim(𝑊1 + 𝑊2 ) =
𝑑𝑖𝑚 𝑊1 + 𝑑𝑖𝑚 𝑊2 − 𝑑𝑖𝑚(𝑊1 ∩ 𝑊2 )}.

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Coordinates:
Let V be a vector space over a field F and 𝑎 ∈ 𝑉.
If 𝑣 = 𝑐1 𝑢1 + 𝑐2 𝑢2 + 𝑐3 𝑢3 + 𝑐4 𝑢4 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑛 𝑢𝑛 then 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , 𝑐3 , 𝑐4 , … , 𝑐𝑛 are called the coordinates
of 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 , 𝑢4 ,... , 𝑢𝑛 and 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 , 𝑢4 ,... , 𝑢𝑛 are called generators of v.
Note:
1) Let A be any m×n matrix row equivalent to a row reduced echelon matrix B, then the non-zero
rows of B form a basis of the sub space spanned by the rows of A.
2) The number of non-zero rows of B (row reduced matrix) is the dimension of the sub space
spanned by the rows of the matrix A.
3) Any subset of 𝑉𝑛 (𝑅) containing more than n vectors is linearly dependent.
4) Any subset of 𝑉𝑛 (𝑅) containing less than or equal to n vectors is linearly independent.
5) If the determinant of the matrix is non-zero then given set of vectors are linearly independent.
6) If the determinant of the matrix is zero then given set of vectors are linearly dependent.
7) Any set of 𝑛 linearly independent vectors in 𝑉𝑛 (𝑅) forms basis of V.
8) If a set S of 𝑛 vectors spans 𝑉𝑛 (𝑅), then S is a basis of V.
9) A set with 𝑛 − 1 elements do not span 𝑉𝑛 (𝑅). Hence do not form basis.
Problems:
1. Show that the vectors 𝑎1 = (1, 0, 0, 0, 0, … … . ,0), 𝑎2 = (0, 1, 0, 0, 0, … … . ,0), … . . 𝑎𝑛 =
(0, 0, 0, 0, 0, … … . ,1) of the vector space 𝑉𝑛 (𝑅) form a basis of 𝑉𝑛 (𝑅).
Solution: The set 𝑆 = {𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , 𝑎4 𝑎𝑛 }is a linearly independent set if
𝑐1 𝑎1 + c2 𝑎2 + 𝑐3 𝑎3 +. . . + c𝑛 𝑎𝑛 = 0
⇒ 𝑐1 (1, 0, 0, 0, 0, . . . ,0) + 𝑐2 (0, 1, 0, 0,0, . . . ,0) + 𝑐3 (0, 0, 1,0,0, . . . , 0) + ⋯ +

𝑐𝑛 (0, 0, 0, 0, 0,...,1) = (0, 0, 0,0,0, . . . , 0)
⇒ 𝑐1 = 0, 𝑐2 = 0, 𝑐3 = 0, . . . , 𝑐𝑛 = 0
Therefore, S is linearly independent.
Further any vector (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , 𝑥4 . . . . . . . . . 𝑥𝑛 ) ∈ 𝑉𝑛 (𝑅)can be expressed as a linear combination of
the elements of S as(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , 𝑥4 … … … . 𝑥𝑛 ) = 𝑥1 𝑒1 + 𝑥2 𝑒2 + 𝑥3 𝑒3 + 𝑥4 𝑒4 + . . . . . . . + 𝑥𝑛 𝑒𝑛
Hence 𝐿[𝑆] = 𝑉 and therefore S is basis of 𝑉𝑛 (𝑅).
2. Determine whether the set {(1, 2, 1), (3, 4, −7), (3, 1, 5)} is a basis of 𝑉3 (𝑅).

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Solution: Since 𝑉3 (𝑅). is a vector space of dimension three it is sufficient if we verify the given
set for linear independence. Consider the determinant whose rows are given vectors
1 2 1
|3 4 −7| = −54 ≠ 0
3 1 5
Therefore, the given vectors are linearly independent.
Hence the given set is a basis of 𝑉3 (𝑅).
3. Find the dimension and basis of the subspace spanned by the vectors (2, 4, 2), (1, -1, 0),
(1, 2, 1), and (0, 3, 1) in 𝑉3 (𝑅).
Solution: Let S = {(2, 4, 2), (1, -1, 0), (1, 2, 1), (0, 3, 1)} and 𝑑𝑖𝑚[𝑉3 (𝑅)] = 3. Therefore, any
subset of 𝑉3 (𝑅)containing more than 3 vectors is linearly dependent. Therefore, S is linearly
dependent.
Consider
2 4 2
1 −1 0
𝐴=[ ]
1 2 1
0 3 1
Operating, R1 ↔ 𝑅3 , 𝑅2 ↔ 𝑅4
1 2 1
0 3 1
𝐴∼[ ]
2 4 2
1 −1 0
Operating, R′3 → 𝑅3 − 2𝑅1 , 𝑅4′ → 𝑅4 − 𝑅1 ,
1 2 1
0 3 1
𝐴∼[ ]
0 0 0
0 −3 −1

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Operating, R′4 → 𝑅4 + 𝑅2 ,
1 2 1
0 3 1
𝐴∼[ ]
0 0 0
0 0 0
The final matrix has two non-zero rows.
Therefore, dim [subspace spanned by S] = 2.
A basis of the subspace is {(1, 2, 1), (0, -3, -1)}.
4. Prove that 𝐵 = {(1,0), (0,1)} are basis of vector space 𝑉2 (𝑅)
5. Determine whether or not each of the following set forms a basis of 𝑅 3
i. {(1, 1, 1), (1, 0, 1)}
ii. {(1, 1, 1), (1, 2, 3), (2, -1, 1)}
iii. {(1, 1, 2), (1, 2, 5), (5, 3, 4)}
iv. {(1, 2, 3), (-1, 0, 1), (1, 2, 1), (1, 4, 3)}
6. Determine whether {(1, 1), (1, -1)} forms basis of 𝑉2 (𝑅)
7. Show that 𝑆 = {{(1, 1, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 1, 1)} is a basis of the vector space 𝑉3 (𝑅)
Linear Transformation:
Let U and V be two vector spaces over the same field F. The mapping 𝑇: 𝑈 → 𝑉 is said to be a
linear transformation if
i. 𝑇(𝛼 + 𝛽) = 𝑇(𝛼) + 𝑇(𝛽), ∀𝛼, 𝛽 ∈ 𝑈
ii. 𝑇(𝑐. 𝛼) = 𝑐. 𝑇(𝛼), ∀𝑐 ∈ 𝐹, 𝛼 ∈ 𝑈
Note:
1) Linear transformation is also called as linear mapping or linear operator.
2) In the definition the sign + in 𝛼 + 𝛽 denotes the addition in the vector space U, where
as the sign + in 𝑇(𝛼) + 𝑇(𝛽) denotes the addition in the space V.
Problems:
1. If 𝑓: 𝑉3 (𝑅) → 𝑉2 (𝑅) is defined by f(x, y, z) = (x + y, y + z), show that f is a linear

transformation.
Solution: Let 𝜶 = (𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 , 𝒛𝟏 ) & 𝜷 = (𝒙𝟐 , 𝒚𝟐 , 𝒛𝟐 ) be any two elements of 𝑽𝟑 (𝑹)
Consider 𝑓(𝛼 + 𝛽) = 𝑓(𝑥1 + 𝑥2 , 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 , 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 )

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= (𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 , 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 + 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 )
= [(𝑥1 + 𝑦1 ) + ( 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 ), (𝑦1 + 𝑧1 ) + (𝑦2 + 𝑧2 )]
= [(𝑥1 + 𝑦1 ), (𝑦1 + 𝑧1 )] + [(𝑥2 + 𝑦2 ) + (𝑦2 + 𝑧2 )]
= 𝑓(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) + 𝑓(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 )
⇒ 𝑓(𝛼 + 𝛽) = 𝑓(𝛼) + 𝑓(𝛽)
Let 𝑐 ∈ 𝑅 be arbitrary.
Consider 𝑓(𝑐. 𝛼) = 𝑓(𝑐. 𝑥1 , 𝑐. 𝑦1 , 𝑐. 𝑧1 ) = (𝑐. 𝑥1 + 𝑐. 𝑦1 , 𝑐. 𝑦1 + 𝑐. 𝑧1 )
= 𝑐(𝑥1 + 𝑦1 , 𝑦1 + 𝑧1 ) = 𝑐. 𝑓(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) = 𝑐. 𝑓(𝛼)
⇒ 𝑓(𝑐. 𝛼) = 𝑐. 𝑓(𝛼)
Therefore, f is a linear transformation.
2. If 𝑇: 𝑉3 (𝑅) → 𝑉3 (𝑅) is defined by 𝑇 (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 ) = (0, 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 ), show that T is a linear

transformation.
Solution: Let 𝛼 = (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 ) & 𝛽 = (𝑦1 , 𝑦2 , y3 ) be any two elements of 𝑉3 (𝑅)
Consider 𝑇(𝛼 + 𝛽) = 𝑇((𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 ) + (𝑦1 , 𝑦2 , 𝑦3 ))
= 𝑇(𝑥1 + 𝑦1 , 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 , 𝑥3 + 𝑦3 )
= (0, 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 , 𝑥3 + 𝑦3 )
= (0, 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 ) + (0, 𝑦2 , 𝑦3 )
= 𝑇(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 ) + 𝑇(𝑦1 , 𝑦2 , 𝑦3 )
⟹ 𝑇(𝛼 + 𝛽) = 𝑇(𝛼) + 𝑇(𝛽)
Let 𝑐 ∈ 𝑅 be arbitrary.
Consider,𝑇(𝑐. 𝛼) = 𝑇[𝑐. (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 )] = 𝑇[(𝑐𝑥1 , c𝑥2 , c𝑥3 )] = (0, c𝑥2 , c𝑥3 ) = c.(0, 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 )
𝑇(𝑐. 𝛼) = 𝑐. 𝑇(0, 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 ) = 𝑐. 𝑇(𝛼)
⇒ 𝑇(𝑐. 𝛼) = 𝑐. 𝑇(𝛼)
Therefore, T is a linear transformation.
3. If T is a mapping from 𝑉2 (𝑅) into 𝑉2 (𝑅) defined by
𝑇(𝑥, 𝑦) = (𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃, 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃), show that T is a linear transformation.
4. Find the linear transformation 𝑓: 𝑅 2 → 𝑅 2 such that 𝑓(1, 1) = (0, 1) and
𝑓(−1, 1) = (3, 2).
5. Find the linear transformation 𝑇: 𝑅 2 → 𝑅 3 such that 𝑇(1, 1) = (0, 1, 2) and
𝑇(−1, 1) = (2, 1, 0).

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Ordered basis of V:
Definition: Let V be a vector space over a field F and dim[V] = n > 0. Choose a basis
𝒂𝟏 , 𝒂𝟐 , 𝒂𝟑 , … , 𝒂𝒏 of V written in order. This basis 𝑩 = {𝒂𝟏 , 𝒂𝟐 , 𝒂𝟑 , … , 𝒂𝒏 }is called an ordered basis
of V. In an ordered basis, the order in which the elements are arranged is taken in to account.
Example:
[{(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)}, {(0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1), (1, 0, 0)}, {(0, 0, 1), (1, 0, 0), (0, 1,0)}]
are three different basis of R3.
Note:
1) If 𝐵 = {𝛼1 , 𝛼2 , 𝛼3 , … , 𝛼𝑛 } be an ordered basis of V, then for 𝛼 ∈ 𝑉

𝛼= c1 𝛼1 + c2 𝛼2 + c3 𝛼3 +…+c𝑛 𝛼𝑛 , 𝑐𝑖 ∈ F are called coordinates of the vector 𝛼
2) The coordinates depend on the choice of the ordered basis.

Problems:
1. Find the coordinate vector of (3, -2, 1) relative to (i) ordered standard basis
(ii) the ordered basis {(1, 1, 1), (1, 0, 0), (1, 1, 0)} of 𝑅 3 .
Solution:
(i) Standard basis is (1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)

∴ (3, −2, 1) = 𝑐1 (1, 0, 0) + 𝑐2 (0, 1, 0) + 𝑐3 (0, 0, 1) ⇒ 𝑐1 = 3, 𝑐2 = −2, 𝑐3 = 1
⇒ (3, −2, 1) = (𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , 𝑐3 ).
Therefore, coordinate vector of (3, -2, 1) relative to standard basis is (3, -2, 1) itself.
(ii) Let (3, −2, 1) = 𝑐1 (1, 1, 1) + 𝑐2 (1, 0, 0) + 𝑐3 (1, 1, 0) = (𝑐1 + 𝑐2 + 𝑐3 , 𝑐1 + 𝑐3 , 𝑐1 )
⇒ 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 + 𝑐3 = 3, 𝑐1 + 𝑐3 = −2, 𝑐1 = 1
Solving we get c1 = 1, c1 = 5, c3 = -3 which are coordinates of (3, -2, 1) with respect to the
ordered basis (1, 1, 1), (1, 0, 0), (1, 1, 0).
Matrix of the linear transformation:

Let V and W be vector spaces of dimension m and n respectively over the same field F. Let 𝐵1 =
{𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … , 𝑎𝑚 } & 𝐵2 = {𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 , … , 𝑏𝑛 }be the ordered basis of V and W respectively.
Let 𝑇: 𝑉 → 𝑊 be a linear transformation defined as

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𝑇(𝑎1 ) = 𝑎11 𝑏1 + 𝑎21 𝑏2 + 𝑎31 𝑏3 + … … . + 𝑎𝑛1 𝑏𝑛

𝑇(𝑎2 ) = 𝑎12 𝑏1 + 𝑎22 𝑏2 + 𝑎32 𝑏3 + … … . + 𝑎𝑛2 𝑏𝑛
………………………………………….
𝑇(𝑎𝑚 ) = 𝑎1𝑚 𝑏1 + 𝑎2𝑚 𝑏2 + 𝑎3𝑚 𝑏3 + … … . + 𝑎𝑛𝑚 𝑏𝑛
The transpose of the coefficient matrix is called the “matrix of the linear transformation” relative
to the basis 𝐵1 & 𝐵2. This matrix is denoted by 𝐴𝑇 and is given by
𝑎11 𝑎12 . 𝑎1𝑚
𝑎21 𝑎22 . 𝑎2𝑚
𝐴𝑇 = [ . . . . ]
𝑎𝑛1 𝑎𝑛2 . 𝑎𝑛𝑚
Problems:
1. Find the matrix of the linear transformation 𝑇: 𝑉2 (𝑅) → 𝑉3 (𝑅) defined by
𝑇(𝑥, 𝑦) = (𝑥 + 𝑦, 𝑥, 3𝑥 − 𝑦) with respect to standard bases.
Solution: By data 𝑇(𝑥, 𝑦) = (𝑥 + 𝑦, 𝑥, 3𝑥 − 𝑦)
B1 = {(1, 0), (0, 1)} & B2 = {(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)}
Now T (1, 0) = (1, 1, 3) & T (0, 1) = (1, 0, -1)
𝑇 (1, 0) = (1, 1, 3) = 𝑐1 (1, 0, 0) + 𝑐2 (0, 1, 0) + 𝑐3 (0, 0, 1)
⇒ (1, 1, 3) = (𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , 𝑐3 ) ⇒ 𝑐1 = 1, 𝑐2 = 1, 𝑐3 = 3
𝑇 (0, 1) = (1, 0, −1) = 𝑐1 (1, 0, 0) + 𝑐2 (0, 1, 0) + 𝑐3 (0, 0, 1)
⇒ (1, 0, −1) = (𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , 𝑐3 ) ⇒ 𝑐1 = 1, 𝑐2 = 0, 𝑐3 = −1
1 1
∴ 𝐴𝑇 = [1 0 ] is matrix of the linear transformation.
3 −1
2. Find the matrix of the linear transformation 𝑇: 𝑉3 (𝑅) → 𝑉2 (𝑅) defined by 𝑇(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) =
(𝑥 + 𝑦, 𝑦 + 𝑧) with respect to 𝐵1 = {(1, 1, 1), (1, 0, 0), (1, 1, 0)}, 𝐵2 = {(1, 0), (0, 1)}.
Solution: By data 𝑻(𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛) = (𝒙 + 𝒚, 𝒚 + 𝒛)
𝐵1 = {(1, 1, 1), (1, 0, 0), (1, 1, 0)}, 𝐵2 = {(1, 0), (0, 1)}.
𝑇(1, 1, 1) = (2,2), 𝑇(1, 0, 0) = (1,0) , 𝑇(1, 1, 0) = (2,1)
𝑇(1, 1, 1) = (2, 2) = 𝑐1 (1, 0) + 𝑐2 (0, 1) = (𝑐1 , 𝑐2 ) ⇒ 𝑐1 = 2, 𝑐2 = 2
𝑇(1, 0, 0) = (1, 0) = 𝑐1 (1, 0) + 𝑐2 (0, 1) = (𝑐1 , 𝑐2 ) ⇒ 𝑐1 = 1, 𝑐2 = 0
𝑇(1, 1, 0) = (2, 1) = 𝑐1 (1, 0) + 𝑐2 (0, 1) = (𝑐1 , 𝑐2 ) ⇒ 𝑐1 = 2, 𝑐2 = 1
2 1 2
∴ 𝐴𝑇 = [ ] is matrix of the linear transformation.
2 0 1

P a g e 24 | 33
1 2
3. Given the matrix 𝐴 = [ 0 1], find the linear transformation 𝑇: 𝑉2 (𝑅) → 𝑉3 (𝑅) relative to
−1 3
the basis 𝐵1 = {(1, 1), (−1, 1)}, 𝐵2 = {(1, 1, 1), (1, −1, 1), (0, 0, 1)}.
Solution: Define 𝑇: 𝑉2 (𝑅) → 𝑉3 (𝑅) by
𝑇(1, 1) = 1(1, 1, 1) + 0(1, −1, 1) + (−1)(0, 0, 1) = (1, 1, 0)
𝑇(−1, 1) = 2(1, 1, 1) + 1(1, −1, 1) + 3(0, 0, 1) = (3, 1, 6)
Let (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝑉2 (𝑅)be arbitrary, then
(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑐1 (1, 1) + 𝑐2 (−1, 1) = (𝑐1 − 𝑐2 , 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 ) ⇒ 𝑐1 − 𝑐2 = 𝑥 & 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 = 𝑦
𝑥+𝑦 𝑦−𝑥
Solving we get 𝑐1 = & 𝑐2=
2 2
Consider, (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑐1 (1, 1) + 𝑐2 (−1, 1) = (1, 1) + (−1, 1)
2 2
Applying linear transformation on both sides

𝑇(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑇(1, 1) + 𝑇(−1, 1)
2 2
𝑥+𝑦 𝑦−𝑥 𝑥+𝑦 3𝑦−3𝑥 𝑥+𝑦 𝑦−𝑥 6𝑦−6𝑥
= (1,1,0) + (3,1,6) = [ + , + , ]
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
⇒ 𝑇(𝑥, 𝑦) = (−𝑥 + 2𝑦, 𝑦, −3𝑥 + 3𝑦) is the required transformation relative to the basis 𝐵1 & 𝐵2.
4. Find the matrix of the linear transformation 𝑇: 𝑉3 (𝑅) → 𝑉2 (𝑅)
defined by 𝑇(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (𝑥 + 𝑦, 𝑦 + 𝑧) with respect to standard bases of 𝑉3 (𝑅) and 𝑉2 (𝑅).
5. Find the matrix of the linear transformation 𝑇: 𝑉2 (𝑅) → 𝑉3 (𝑅)
defined by 𝑇(𝑥, 𝑦) = (−𝑥 + 2𝑦, 𝑦,-3x+3𝑦) relative to bases 𝐵1 = {(1, 1), (−1, 1)} and 𝐵2 =
{(1, 1, 1), (1, −1, 1), (0, 0, 1)}.
Change of Basis
Definition: Let 𝑇: 𝑉 → 𝑉 be linear transformation defined over Field F,
Let 𝐵1 = {𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … , 𝑎𝑚 } be basis of V and 𝐵2 = {𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 , … , 𝑏𝑛 } be another basis of V.
Then we obtain change of basis from old basis 𝐵1 to new basis 𝐵2 by expressing 𝑏𝑖 as a linear
combination of 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … , 𝑎𝑚
𝑏1 = 𝑐11 𝑎1 + 𝑐21 𝑎2 + 𝑐31 𝑎3 + … … . + 𝑐𝑛1 𝑎𝑛
𝑏2 = 𝑐12 𝑎1 + 𝑐22 𝑎2 + 𝑐32 𝑎3 + … … . + 𝑐𝑛2 𝑎𝑛
………………………………………….
𝑇(𝑎𝑚 ) = 𝑐1𝑚 𝑎1 + 𝑐2𝑚 𝑎2 + 𝑐3𝑚 𝑎3 + … … . + 𝑐𝑛𝑚 𝑎𝑛
The transpose of the coefficient of above system of equation gives matrix of change of basis from
𝐵1 𝑡𝑜 𝐵2. This matrix is given by
P a g e 25 | 33
𝑐11 𝑐12 . 𝑐1𝑚

𝑐21 𝑐22 . 𝑐2𝑚
𝑃=[ . . . . ]
𝑐𝑛1 𝑐𝑛2 . 𝑐𝑛𝑚
Problems:
1. Consider the following basis of 𝑅 2 , 𝑆 = {𝑢1 , 𝑢2 } = {(1,2), (3,5)}, 𝑆 ′ = {𝑣1 , 𝑣2 } =
{(1, −1), (1, −2)}. Find the change of basis matrix P from 𝑆 to 𝑆 ′ . Also find the change
of basis matrix Q from 𝑆 ′ to 𝑆.
Solution: i) Let 𝑆 = {𝑢1 , 𝑢2 } = {(1,2), (3,5)}. Express 𝑆 ′ vectors {𝑣1 , 𝑣2 } as a linear
combination of vectors {𝑢1 , 𝑢2 } of 𝑆.
𝑣1 = 𝑐1 𝑢1 + 𝑐2 𝑢2 ⇒ (1, −1) = 𝑐1 (1, 2) + 𝑐2 (3, 5)
1 = 𝑐1 + 3𝑐2 ⇒ 𝑐1 = −8, 𝑐2 = 3
−1 = 2𝑐1 + 5𝑐2
𝑣2 = 𝑐3 𝑢1 + 𝑐4 𝑢2 ⇒ (1, −2) = 𝑐3 (1, 2) + 𝑐4 (3, 5)
1 = 𝑐3 + 3𝑐4 ⇒ 𝑐3 = −11, 𝑐4 = 4
−2 = 2𝑐3 + 5𝑐4
−8 − 11
Change of basis from 𝑆 to 𝑆 ′ is 𝑃 = [ ]
3 4
ii) To obtain change of basis from 𝑆 ′ 𝑡𝑜 𝑆, Express 𝑆 vectors {𝑢1 , 𝑢2 } as a linear combination
of 𝑆 ′ vectors {𝑣1 , 𝑣2 }.
𝑢1 = 𝑐1 𝑣1 + 𝑐2 𝑣2 ⇒ (1, 2) = 𝑐1 (1, −1) + 𝑐2 (1, −2)
1 = 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 ⇒ 𝑐1 = 4, 𝑐2 = −3
2 = −𝑐1 − 2𝑐2
𝑢2 = 𝑐3 𝑣1 + 𝑐4 𝑣2 ⇒ (3, 5) = 𝑐3 (1, −1) + 𝑐4 (1, −2)
3 = 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 ⇒ 𝑐1 = 11, 𝑐2 = −8
5 = −𝑐1 − 2𝑐2
4 11
Change of basis from 𝑆 to 𝑆 ′ is 𝑄 = [ ]
−3 −8
2. Consider the following basis of 𝑅 3 , 𝐸 = {𝑒1 , 𝑒2 , 𝑒3 } and 𝑆 = {𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 } =
{(1,0, 1), (2, 1, 2), (1, 2, 2)}. Find the change of basis matrix P from E to S. Also find the
change of basis matrix Q from S to E.
Solution: i) Let 𝐸 = {𝑒1 , 𝑒2 , 𝑒3 } = {(1,0,0), (0,1,0), (0,0,1)}. To find change of basis from
E to S, express S vectors {𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 } as a linear combination of vectors {𝑒1 , 𝑒2 , 𝑒3 } of E.
𝑢1 = 𝑐1 𝑒1 + 𝑐2 𝑒2 + 𝑐3 𝑒3 ⇒ (1, 0,1) = 𝑐1 (1, 0,0) + 𝑐2 (0, 1,0) + 𝑐3 (0, 0, 1)

P a g e 26 | 33
⇒ 𝑐1 = 1, 𝑐2 = 0, 𝑐3 = 1
𝑢2 = 𝑐4 𝑒1 + 𝑐5 𝑒2 + 𝑐6 𝑒3 ⇒ (2, 1,2) = 𝑐3 (1, 0,0) + 𝑐4 (0, 1,0) + 𝑐5 (0, 0, 1)
⇒ 𝑐4 = 2, 𝑐5 = 1, 𝑐6 = 2
𝑢3 = 𝑐7 𝑒1 + 𝑐8 𝑒2 + 𝑐9 𝑒3 ⇒ (1, 2,2) = 𝑐1 (1, 0,0) + 𝑐2 (0, 1,0) + 𝑐3 (0, 0, 1)
⇒ 𝑐7 = 1, 𝑐8 = 2, 𝑐9 = 2
1 2 1
Change of basis from E to S is 𝑃 = [0 1 2]
1 2 2
ii) To obtain change of basis from S to E, Express E vectors {𝑒1 , 𝑒2 , 𝑒3 } as a linear
combination of S vectors {𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 }.
𝑒1 = 𝑐1 𝑢1 + 𝑐2 𝑢2 + 𝑐3 𝑢3 ⇒ (1, 0, 0) = 𝑐1 (1, 0,1) + 𝑐2 (2,1,2) + 𝑐3 (1,2,2)
1 = 𝑐1 + 2𝑐2 + 𝑐3
0 = 0𝑐1 + 2𝑐2 + 2𝑐3
0 = 𝑐1 + 2𝑐2 + 2𝑐3 ⇒ 𝑐1 = −2, 𝑐2 = 2, 𝑐3 = −1
𝑒2 = 𝑐4 𝑢1 + 𝑐5 𝑢2 + 𝑐6 𝑢3 ⇒ (0, 1, 0) = 𝑐4 (1, 0,1) + 𝑐5 (2,1,2) + 𝑐6 (1,2,2)
0 = 𝑐1 + 2𝑐2 + 𝑐3
1 = 0𝑐1 + 2𝑐2 + 2𝑐3
0 = 𝑐1 + 2𝑐2 + 2𝑐3 ⇒ 𝑐4 = −2, 𝑐5 = 1, 𝑐6 = 0
𝑒3 = 𝑐7 𝑢1 + 𝑐8 𝑢2 + 𝑐9 𝑢3 ⇒ (0, 0, 1) = 𝑐7 (1, 0,1) + 𝑐8 (2,1,2) + 𝑐9 (1,2,2)
0 = 𝑐1 + 2𝑐2 + 𝑐3
0 = 0𝑐1 + 2𝑐2 + 2𝑐3
1 = 𝑐1 + 2𝑐2 + 2𝑐3 ⇒ 𝑐1 = 3, 𝑐2 = −2, 𝑐3 = 1
−2 −2 3
Change of basis from S to E is 𝑄 = [ 2 1 −2]
−1 0 1
3. Consider the following basis of 𝑅 2 , 𝐸 = {𝑒1 , 𝑒2 } = {(1,0), (0,1)}, 𝑆 = {𝑣1 , 𝑣2 } =
{(1,3), (1, 4)}. Find the change of basis matrix P from E to S and change of basis matrix
Q from S to E.
4. Consider the linear transformation 𝑇 on 𝑅 2 defined by 𝑇(𝑥, 𝑦) = (5𝑥 − 𝑦, 2𝑥 + 𝑦) and
the following basis of 𝑅 2 𝐸 = {𝑒1 , 𝑒2 } = {(1,0), (0,1)}, 𝑆 = {𝑣1 , 𝑣2 } = {(1, 4), (2, 7)}.
Find the change of basis matrix P from E to S and change of basis matrix Q from S to E.

P a g e 27 | 33
Range and Kernel of a linear transformation
Definition: Let 𝑇: 𝑈 → 𝑉 be a linear transformation. The range of T is the set, 𝑅(𝑇) =

{𝑇(𝛼)/𝛼 ∈ 𝑈}, i.e., 𝑅(𝑇) is the set of all T-images of the elements of U. Clearly, 𝑅(𝑇) ⊆ 𝑉.
Definition: Let 𝑇: 𝑈 → 𝑉 be a linear transformation. The Kernel (or null space) of T is the set
𝑁(𝑇) = {𝛼 ∈ 𝑈/𝑇(𝛼) = 0} where 0 is the zero vector of V.
Rank and Nullity:
Definition: Let 𝑇: 𝑈 → 𝑉 be a linear transformation. Then,
1) If 𝑅(𝑇) is finite dimensional, the dimension of 𝑅(𝑇)is called the Rank of linear transformation
and is denoted by 𝑟(𝑇).
2) If 𝑁(𝑇) is finite dimensional, the dimension of 𝑁(𝑇)is called the Nullity of linear transformation
and is denoted by 𝑛(𝑇).
Rank-Nullity theorem
Let 𝑇: 𝑈 → 𝑉 be a linear transformation and U be a finite dimensional vector space. Then

𝑑𝑖𝑚 𝑅 (𝑇) + 𝑑𝑖𝑚 𝑁 (𝑇) = 𝑑𝑖𝑚 𝑈 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑟(𝑇) + 𝑛(𝑇) = 𝑑𝑖𝑚 𝑈. [or Rank+Nullity=dim(domain)]
The null space of the matrix 𝐴, denoted by 𝑁(𝐴), is the set of all n-dimensional column vectors X
such that 𝐴𝑋 = 0.
Problems:
1. Let 𝑇: 𝑉2 (𝑅) → 𝑉2 (𝑅) defined by 𝑇(𝑥, 𝑦) = (𝑥 + 𝑦, 𝑥). Find the range space, kernel, rank, and
nullity. Also, verify the rank-nullity theorem.
Solution:
To find 𝑹(𝑻): We shall write the images of the elements w.r.t standard basis
𝑇(𝑒1 ) = 𝑇(1,0) = (1,1)&𝑇(𝑒2 ) = 𝑇(0,1) = (1,0)
1 1 1 1 1 1 (by
Therefore, the matrix A of T is [ ] 𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝐴 = [ ]∼[ ] echelon form)
1 0 1 0 0 −1
There are 2 non-zero rows. ∴ Rank of A is 2
Hence, 𝑅(𝑇) is subspace generated by(1,1)&(0, −1).
P a g e 28 | 33
∴ 𝑅(𝑇) = {𝑥(1,1) + 𝑦(0, −1)} = {(𝑥, 𝑥) + (0, −𝑦)}

𝑅(𝑇) = {𝑥, 𝑥 − 𝑦} = 𝑉2 (𝑅)
To find 𝑵(𝑻):
Let𝑇(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 ⇒ (𝑥 + 𝑦, 𝑥) = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 0, 𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 0
∴ 𝑁(𝑇) contains only zero elements of 𝑉2 (𝑅)
∴ 𝑁(𝑇) = {(0,0)} ⇒ Nullspace = {(0,0)}
𝑑𝑖𝑚[𝑁(𝑇)] = 0 ⇒ Nullity = 0
∴ Rank+Nullity = 2 + 0 = 2 = dim (𝑉2 (𝑅))
Hence rank-nullity theorem is verified.
2. Let 𝑇: 𝑉 → 𝑊 be a linear transformation defined by

𝑇(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (𝑥 + 𝑦, 𝑥 − 𝑦, 2𝑥 + 𝑧). Find the range, null space, rank, nullity and hence
verify the rank-nullity theorem
Solution:
We shall write the images of the elements of standard basis
𝑇(1, 0, 0) = (1, 1, 2) = 𝑎1
𝑇(0, 1, 0) = (1, −1, 0) = 𝑎2
𝑇(0, 0, 1) = (0, 0, 1) = 𝑎3
Clearly the set {𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 }generates 𝑅(𝑇).
1 1 2
Consider the matrix 𝐴 = [1 −1 0]
0 0 1
1 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 2
𝐴 = [1 −1 0] ∼ [0 −2 −2] ∼ [0 1 1] (By echelon form)
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
∴ dim 𝑅(𝑇) = 3 ⇒ 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘 = 3 . 𝑅(𝑇) is subspace generated by (1,1,2), (0,1,1)&(0,0,1).

∴ 𝑅(𝑇) = {𝑥(1,1,2) + 𝑦(0,1,1) + 𝑧(0,0,1)} = {(𝑥, 𝑥, 2𝑥) + (0, 𝑦, 𝑦) + (0,0, 𝑧)}
𝑅(𝑇) = {𝑥, 𝑥 + 𝑦, 2𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧/𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝑅} = 𝑅 3
To find 𝑁(𝑇):
Consider 𝑇(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (0, 0, 0)
(𝑥 ,𝑥 + 𝑦, 2𝑥 +𝑦 + 𝑧) = (0, 0, 0)
⇒ 𝑥 = 0, 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 0, 2𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 0
⇒ 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 0, 𝑧 = 0

P a g e 29 | 33
𝑁(𝑇) contains only zero vector

𝑁(𝑇) = (0, 0, 0) ⇒ 𝑑𝑖𝑚 𝑁 (𝑇) = 0 ⇒ Nullity = 0
∴ Rank+Nullity = 3 + 0 = 3 = 𝑑𝑖𝑚(𝑅 3 )
Hence rank-nullity theorem is verified.
3. Let 𝑇: 𝑅 3 → 𝑅 3 be defined by 𝑇(1, 0, 0) = (1, 1, 2), 𝑇(0, 1, 0) = (1, −1, 0), 𝑇(0, 0, 1) =
(0, 0, 1). Find the range space, null space, rank and nullity of 𝑇 and verify the rank-nullity theorem.
4. Let 𝑇: 𝑅 3 → 𝑅 3 be defined by 𝑇(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (𝑥 + 𝑦, 𝑥 + 𝑧, 𝑦 + 𝑧). Find the range space, null
space, rank and nullity of 𝑇 and hence verify the rank-nullity theorem.
Inner product space and orthogonality

Let u and v are vectors in 𝑅 𝑛 , then we regard u and v as 𝑛 × 1 matrices. The transpose 𝑢𝑇 is a
1 × 𝑛 matrix, and the matrix product 𝑢𝑇 𝑣 is a 1 × 1 matrix, which we write as a scalar. The
number 𝑢𝑇 𝑣 is called the inner product of u and v, and often it is written as 𝑢 ∙ 𝑣 . This inner
product is also referred to as a dot product.
If 𝑢 = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … . 𝑎𝑛 ) and 𝑣 = (𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 , … . 𝑏𝑛 ), then inner product of 𝑢 and 𝑣 is given by
u ∙ v = 𝑎1 𝑏1 + 𝑎2 𝑏2 + 𝑎3 𝑏3 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑛
The norm (or length) of a vector 𝑢 = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … . 𝑎𝑛 ) is given by
‖𝑢‖ = √(𝑢12 + 𝑢22 + 𝑢32 + ⋯ + 𝑢𝑛2 )
Orthogonal Vectors
Two vectors 𝑢 and 𝑣 in 𝑅 𝑛 are orthogonal to each other if inner product 𝑢 ∙ 𝑣 = 0
Orthogonal Set
A set of vectors {𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 … 𝑢𝑛 } in 𝑅 𝑛 is said to be an orthogonal set if each pair of distinct vectors
from the set is orthogonal, that is, 𝑢𝑖 ∙ 𝑢𝑗 = 0 for 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗
Properties:
1) If 𝑐 ∈ 𝐹 is any scalar in a vector space V(F) then ‖𝑐𝑢‖ = |𝑐|‖𝑢‖
2) A vector 𝑢 whose norm (length) is 1 is called unit vector.
1
3) For any vector 𝑣 the unit vector is obtained by 𝑢 = ‖𝑣‖ 𝑣 .
4) For u and v in 𝑅 𝑛 , the distance between u and v, written as 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡(𝑢, 𝑣) = ‖𝑢 − 𝑣‖, is the
length of the vector 𝑢 − 𝑣.
5) For any pair of vectors 𝑢𝑖 ∙ 𝑢𝑗 = 𝑢𝑗 ∙ 𝑢𝑖 . Hence inner product is commutative.

P a g e 30 | 33
Problems:
1. Let 𝑣 = (1, −2,2,0). Find a unit vector 𝑢 in the same direction as 𝑣.
Solution: Compute norm of 𝑣, ‖𝑣‖ = √(𝑢12 + 𝑢22 + 𝑢32 + ⋯ + 𝑢𝑛2 )
⇒ ‖𝑣‖ = √12 + (−2)2 + 22 + 02 = √9 = 3

1
Multiply both sides 𝑣 by ‖𝑣‖ to obtain
1 𝑣 1 1 2 2
𝑢 = ‖𝑣‖ 𝑣 = 3 = 3 (1, −2, 2, 0) = (3 , − 3 , 3 , 0) is required unit vector
2. Compute 𝑢 ∙ 𝑣 and 𝑣 ∙ 𝑢 for the vectors 𝑢 = (2, −5, −1) and 𝑢 = (3, 2, −3)
Solution: u ∙ v = 2(3) + (−5)(2) + (−1)(−3) = −1
𝑣 ∙ 𝑢 = (3)(2) + (2)(−5) + (−3)(−1) = −1
2
3. Let W be the subspace of 𝑅 2 spanned by 𝑥 = {(3 , 1)}. Find a unit vector z that is a basis
for W.
Solution: W consists of all multiples of 𝑥. Any non-zero vector in 𝑊 is a basis for 𝑊. Multiply
x by 3 to get, 𝑦 = (2, 3)
Now compute ‖𝑦‖ = √22 + 32 = √13, and
1 2 3
normalize y to get 𝑧 = (2, 3) = ( , ) is required unit vector basis for W.
√13 √13 √13
4. Compute the distance between the vectors 𝑢 = (7,1) and 𝑣 = (3,2).

Solution: 𝑢 − 𝑣 = (7,1) − (3,2) = (4, −1)
‖𝑢 − 𝑣‖ = √42 + (−1)2 = √17
5. Show that {𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 } in 𝑅 3 is an orthogonal set.
Solution: 𝑢1 ∙ 𝑢2 = 3. −1 + 1.2 + 1.1 = 0
1 7
𝑢1 ∙ 𝑢3 = 3. (− 2) + 1. (−2) + 1. (2) = 0
1 7
𝑢2 ∙ 𝑢3 = −1. (− 2) + 2. (−2) + 1. (2) = 0
Each pair of distinct vectors is orthogonal and hence {𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 } is an orthogonal set
4 2
6. Let 𝑢1 = (3 , −1, 3) and 𝑢2 = (5, 6, −1). Find a unit vector u in the direction of 𝑢1 and
show that 𝑢2 is orthogonal to 𝑢1 .

7
Answers: 6. 5
The Gram-Schmidt Process

Given a basis {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 … 𝑥𝑛 } for a non-zero subspace 𝑊 of 𝑅 𝑛 , define
𝑣1 = 𝑥1
P a g e 31 | 33
𝑥2 ∙ 𝑣1
𝑣2 = 𝑥2 − 𝑣
𝑣1 ∙ 𝑣1 1
𝑥3 ∙ 𝑣1 𝑥3 ∙ 𝑣2
𝑣3 = 𝑥3 − 𝑣1 − 𝑣
𝑣1 ∙ 𝑣1 𝑣2 ∙ 𝑣2 2
….
𝑥𝑝 ∙ 𝑣1 𝑥𝑝 ∙ 𝑣2 𝑥𝑝 ∙ 𝑣𝑝−1
𝑣𝑝 = 𝑥𝑝 − 𝑣1 − 𝑣2 − ⋯ − 𝑣
𝑣1 ∙ 𝑣1 𝑣2 ∙ 𝑣2 𝑣𝑝−1 ∙ 𝑣𝑝−1 𝑝−1
Then set {𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 , … , 𝑣𝑝 } is an orthogonal basis for W. In addition
Span{𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 , … , 𝑣𝑝 } = Span {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 … 𝑥𝑛 } for 1 ≤ 𝑘 ≤ 𝑝
Problems
1. Let 𝑊 = 𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑛{𝑥1 , 𝑥2 } where 𝑥1 = (3, 6, 0) and 𝑥2 = (1, 2, 2). Construct an orthogonal
basis using Gram-Schmidt process {𝑣1 , 𝑣2 } for W.
Solution: Step 1: Let 𝑣1 = 𝑥1 = (3, 6, 0)
𝑥 ∙𝑣
Step 2: 𝑣2 = 𝑥2 − 𝑣2∙𝑣1 𝑣1 where 𝑥2 ∙ 𝑣1 = (1, 2, 2) ∙ (3, 6, 0) = 15 and
1 1
𝑣1 ∙ 𝑣1 = (3, 6, 0) ∙ (3, 6, 0) = 45
𝑥2 ∙ 𝑣1 15
𝑣2 = 𝑥2 − 𝑣1 = (1, 2, 2) − (3, 6, 0) = (0, 0, 2)
𝑣1 ∙ 𝑣1 45
Hence {𝑣1 , 𝑣2 } is an orthogonal set of non-zero vectors in W. Since dim W=2, the set {𝑣1 , 𝑣2 }
is a basis for W.
2. Let 𝑥1 = (1, 1, 1, 1), 𝑥2 = (0, 1, 1, 1) and 𝑥3 = (0, 0, 1, 1). Construct an orthogonal basis
using Gram-Schmidt process for W using linearly independent set {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 }.
Solution: Step 1: Let 𝑣1 = 𝑥1 = (1, 1, 1, 1)
𝑥 ∙𝑣
Step 2: 𝑣2 = 𝑥2 − 𝑣2∙𝑣1 𝑣1 where 𝑥2 ∙ 𝑣1 = 3 and 𝑣1 ∙ 𝑣1 = 4
1 1
𝑥 ∙𝑣 3 3 1 1 1
𝑣2 = 𝑥2 − 𝑣2∙𝑣1 𝑣1 = (0, 1, 1, 1) − 4 (1, 1, 1, 1) = (− 4 , 4 , 4 , 4)
1 1
𝑥 ∙𝑣 𝑥 ∙𝑣
Step 3: 𝑣3 = 𝑥3 − 𝑣3∙𝑣1 𝑣1 − 𝑣3∙𝑣2 𝑣2
1 1 2 2
Where 𝑥3 ∙ 𝑣1 = 2, 𝑥3 ∙ 𝑣2 = 2, 𝑣1 ∙ 𝑣1 = 4, 𝑣2 ∙ 𝑣2 = 12
2 2 3 1 1 1 2 1 1
𝑣3 = (0, 0, 1, 1) − 4 (1, 1, 1, 1) + 12 (− 4 , 4 , 4 , 4) = (0, − 3 , 3 , 3)
Hence {𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 } is an orthogonal set of non-zero vectors in W.

3. Construct the orthogonal basis for W using Gram-Schmidt process, where W=Span{𝑥1 , 𝑥2 }
for following vectors

P a g e 32 | 33
1 1 2
i. 𝑥1 = (1, 1, 1) and 𝑥2 = ( , , − )
3 3 3
ii. 𝑥1 = (3, 0, −1) and 𝑥2 = (8, 5, −6)

iii. 𝑥1 = (0, 4, 2) and 𝑥2 = (5, 6, −7)
Self-Study
Orthogonal Projection:
For given a non-zero vector 𝑢 in 𝑅 𝑛 , any vector 𝑦 can be written as sum of two orthogonal vectors,
one is multiple of 𝑢 and other is orthogonal to 𝑢.
𝑦 = 𝑦̂ + 𝑧
Where 𝑦̂ is orthogonal projection of 𝑦 onto 𝑢 and is given by
𝑦∙𝑢
𝑦̂ = 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝐿 𝑦 = 𝑢∙𝑢 𝑢 and 𝑧 = 𝑦 − 𝑦̂
Problems
1. Let 𝑦 = (7, 6) and 𝑢 = (4, 2). Find the orthogonal projection of y onto 𝑢. Write 𝑦 as a
sum of two orthogonal vectors, one in span {u} and one orthogonal to u.
Solution: 𝑦 ∙ 𝑢 = (7, 6) ∙ (4, 2) = 40
𝑢 ∙ 𝑢 = (4, 2) ∙ (4, 2) = 20
𝑦∙𝑢 40
The orthogonal projection of 𝑦 onto 𝑢 is 𝑦̂ = 𝑢∙𝑢 𝑢 = 20 𝑢 = 2(4, 2) = (8, 4)
And the component of y orthogonal to u is 𝑦 − 𝑦̂ = (7, 6) − (8, 4) = (−1, 2)

Hence y as sum of two orthogonal vectors is
𝑦 = 𝑦̂ + (𝑦 − 𝑦̂) ⇒ (7, 6) = (8, 6) + (−1, 2)
𝑎∙𝑏 𝑎∙𝑏
2. Let 𝑎 = (−2, 1) and 𝑏 = (−3, 1). Compute 𝑎∙𝑎 and (𝑎∙𝑎) 𝑎
𝑎∙𝑏 14 𝑎∙𝑏 7
3. Solution: =− and (𝑎∙𝑎) 𝑎 = 5
𝑎∙𝑎 5
Video Links:
1. Vector spaces
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2Ee2B1Jp5ZE
2. Linear transformation
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=is1cg5yhdds
3. Rank-Nullity theorem
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-LmAFzcKYPA

P a g e 33 | 33

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RV Institute of Technology & Management ®

Topic Learning Objectives:

Upon Completion of this module, students will be able to:

➢ Understand the requisites for a set to be vector space.

Then (𝐺,∗) is said to be group

Definition: Vector Space

II-Semester, Mathematics-I for Computer Science & Engineering stream (BMATS201)

II-Semester, Mathematics-I for Computer Science & Engineering stream (BMATS201)

(𝛼 + 𝛼 −1 ) = (𝑥1 −𝑥1 , 𝑦1 − 𝑦1 ) = (0,0) = 0 where 0 is identity element in V

II-Semester, Mathematics-I for Computer Science & Engineering stream (BMATS201)

(i) The set {0} consisting of zero vector of V.

(ii) For c  F,   W ⇒ c.  W

[i.e., A non-empty subspace W of a vector space V is a subspace of V if and only if W is closed

Hence the conditions (i) and (ii) hold good.

Conversely, Suppose W satisfies (i) and (ii) we shall show that W is a

The condition (i) ∀𝛼, 𝛽 ∈ 𝑊 ⇒ 𝛼 + 𝛽 ∈ 𝑊

⇒ + is a binary operation on W. Therefore 𝑊 ≠ 𝜙

And by (ii) c  F,   W ⇒ c.  W

Theorem: A non-empty subset W is a subspace of a vector space V over F if and only

Proof: Let W be a subspace of V

II-Semester, Mathematics-I for Computer Science & Engineering stream (BMATS201)

Solution: Let 𝑎1 = (𝑥1 , 0, 0), 𝑎2 = (𝑥2 , 0, 0)be any two elements of W.

II-Semester, Mathematics-I for Computer Science & Engineering stream (BMATS201)

Then 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 = (𝑥1 , 0, 0) + (𝑥2 , 0, 0)

Then 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 = (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) + (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ) = (𝑥1 + 𝑥2 , 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 , 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 )

(𝑥1 + 𝑥2 ) − 3(𝑦1 + 𝑦2 ) + 4(𝑧1 + 𝑧2 ) = (𝑥1 − 3𝑦1 + 4𝑧1 ) + ( 𝑥2 − 3𝑦2 + 4𝑧2 ) = 0

Therefore 𝑊 is closed under addition.

Again for any scalar aR

𝑎𝑎1 = 𝑎(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) = (𝑎𝑥1 , 𝑎𝑦1 , 𝑎𝑧1 )

Therefore 𝑊 is closed under scalar multiplication

Hence 𝑊 is a subspace of 𝑉3 (𝑅)

(a) all 𝑎 such that 𝑎1 ≥ 0.

Solution: (a) Let 𝑊 = {𝑎: 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅 𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎1 ≥ 0}.

Because if 𝑎1 = 3, 𝑏1 = 4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 = −1, 𝑑 = −2.

Then 𝑐 𝑎1 + 𝑑 𝑏1 = −3 – 8 = −11 < 0.

Hence W is not a subspace of 𝑅 𝑛 .

(b) Let 𝑊 = {𝑎: 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅 𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎1 + 3 𝑎2 = 𝑎3 }

Let 𝑎 = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , . . . , 𝑎𝑛 ), 𝑏 = (𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 , … , 𝑏𝑛 ) ∈ 𝑊,

Now for 𝑐, 𝑑 ∈ 𝑅, we have

(c) Let 𝑊 = {𝑎: 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅 𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎2 . 𝑎1 = 0}

Let 𝑎 = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , . . . , 𝑎𝑛 ), 𝑏 = (𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 , . . . , 𝑏𝑛 ) ∈ 𝑊, where 𝑎2 . 𝑎1 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏2 . 𝑏1 = 0.

= (𝑐𝑎1 + 𝑑𝑏1 , 𝑐𝑎2 + 𝑑𝑏2 , 𝑐𝑎3 + 𝑑𝑏3 , … , 𝑐𝑎𝑛 + 𝑑𝑏𝑛 ),

we have (𝑐𝑎1 + 𝑑𝑏1 ) (𝑐𝑎2 + 𝑑𝑏2 ) ≠ 0 for

Hence 𝑊is not a subspace of 𝑅 𝑛

(d) Let 𝑊 = {𝑎: 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅 𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎2 𝑖𝑠𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙}

Let 𝑎 = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … , 𝑎𝑛 ), 𝑏 = (𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 , . . . , 𝑏𝑛 ) ∈ 𝑊, where 𝑎2 , 𝑏2 are rationals.

II-Semester, Mathematics-I for Computer Science & Engineering stream (BMATS201)

Now for 𝑐, 𝑑 ∈ 𝑅, we have

(a) all 𝑓such that 𝑓(𝑥 2 ) = [𝑓(𝑥)]2

(b) all 𝑓 such that 𝑓(0) = 𝑓(1)

Let 𝑓, 𝑔 ∈ 𝑊. Then 𝑓(𝑥 2 ) = [𝑓(𝑥)]2 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑔(𝑥 2 ) = [𝑔(𝑥)]2 .

Now for 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅, we have

(𝑎𝑓 + 𝑏𝑔)(𝑥 2 ) = (𝑎𝑓) (𝑥 2 ) + (𝑏𝑔)(𝑥 2 )

Hence 𝑊 is not a sub-space of 𝑉.

(b) Let 𝑊 = {𝑓: 𝑓 ∈ 𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑓(0) = 𝑓(1)}.

Let 𝑓, 𝑔 ∈ 𝑊. Then 𝑓(0) = 𝑓(1) and 𝑔(0) = 𝑔(1)

Now for 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅, 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 (𝑎𝑓 + 𝑏𝑔)(0) = 𝑎𝑓(0) + 𝑏𝑔(0)