DC to DC Converter

+PWM Techniques
+SMPS

1
 Chapter Objective

• To understand principles of dc-dc converter

circuits both step-up and step-down
operation.
• To understand the application of dc-dc
circuits in industry i.e. voltage regulator and
DC motor drive.
• To study the basic principle of Pulse Width
Modulation (PWM).
• To understand the basic power supplies

2
 Overview

Rectifier VIN DC-DC VOUT Load

Unregulated Regulated:
Step-up or Step-down

2 Main types: Linear and Switching(PWM) Regulator

3
 Linear Type Regulator
• Drop voltage by using the voltage divider principle. 2 examples:
using resistor and transistor[operating in linear region].

VIN
VCE
+ -

R1

VOUT
VIN VOUT
iB
R2

2)Using Transistor voltage drop:

Adjust iB cause VCE to change
1)Using Divider: change in output voltage

adjust output voltage by

changing resistor VOUT=VIN-VCE

Note. Zener regulator is fall into this category with shunt configuration 4
 Linear Regulator Analysis

• Advantages: Simple, reliable, no switching

device required, low noise or interference,
cheap

• Disadvantages: Limit only for step-down,

Heat dissipation, High Loss, Low
efficiency(around 50%)

• Suitable for low power applications

Q: Does 7805 fall in this category(linear type)? 5

78xx
 LM317,LM337
• LM317(Positive output) and LM337(Negative output) are the standard part for an integrated three-
terminal adjustable linear voltage regulator providing output voltage between 1.2V and 37V from input
3V to 40V and. A typical max current rating is 1.5A.
- Variable output voltage by adjusting a potentiometer or a variable voltage from another source to apply
a control voltage to the control terminal.
- Built-in current limiter to prevent the output current from exceeding the rated current
• It can considerable a better regulator than LM78xx.
 LDO(Low DropOut) Regulator
• LDO chip is a new technology
to improve (lower) input and
output voltage difference and
also help to lower the power
dissipation on the regulator
itself.  High efficiency.
• The dropout voltage is
defined as the minimum
voltage drop required across
the regulator to maintain
output voltage regulation.
• A LDO regulator is a DC
linear voltage regulator which
can operate with a very small
input–output differential
voltage(Vin-Vout). For
example, the LDO has a
dropout voltage around
470mV (0.47V) at 250mA,
therefore to obtain 5V output,
the input to be at least
5+0.47V

Note. From LM7805 datasheet, the minimum input voltage required is 7.5V for 5V regulation.

8
 Switching Type Regulator

Switching Device
Energy Storage
Element

VIN VOUT

Switching Signal

Principle: The converter employs switching devices to release

the energy stored in the energy storage elements(L,C). As a
result, the output voltage can be obtained at different voltage
levels. The switching device requires switching signal, i.e.
PWM which is obtained from the modulation part.
9
 Switching Regulator Analysis

• Advantages: High efficiency(>90%), light

weight

• Disadvantages: cost (require switching

devices and control circuit), complexity,
noise or interference(EMI and RFI)

• Suitable for wide power applications

10
 Comparison

• Old-fashion(Linear Type):Big transformer and filter

capacitorHeavy [higher current higher component
rating Limit only for low power applications due to the
power loss and heat generated from the converter.

• New-fashion(Switching Type):Small
transformer+Control light weight: suitable for
small&portable device i.e. mobile phone, computer
laptop or video game

11
 Basic PWM
• PWM(Pulse Width Modulation)Vary the output to the load
Pulse Width
VIN

ton

PWM

DutyCycle to n
to nto ff
 to n
T
12
 Generating PWM signal
• PWM signals are generated by the comparison between the desired
signal(Vref or Vcontrol) and the carrier signal(i.e. sawtooth or triangle).
• For the closed loop control, the desired signal is derived from the
control system. It is the demanded signal,for example, to increase the
output voltage to the load Vref must be increased in order to obtain a
higher duty cycle. For the open loop control, Vref is usually set by a
potentiometer.
• Traditionally, an oscillator circuit is used to generate a triangle or
sawtooth waveform as a carrier. The frequency of carrier waveforms
determine mainly by maximum switching frequency of devices, control
dynamic, and power loss.

Vcarrier _ PWM Drive

Signal
Vcontrol + (0,1) Circuit

Comparator Switching
Devices

13
 PWM Techniques
• 2 References, dc reference(fixed duty cycle) and ac
reference(varied duty cycle)
Reference Signal Carrier Signal
(Vcontrol) (Vsawtooth or Vtriangle )

Vref is varied

PWM OUT1

PWM OUT2

With dc reference With ac reference

14
 PWM Techniques
• 3 Types of outputs determined by the carrier waveform:
leading edge, trailing edge and centered pulse.

Trailing edge Modulation

15
 PWM Spectrum
• Spectrum(Linear modulation): For a single ac reference sine wave
(modulating signal) with a frequency of f1 modulating with the carrier
of a fixed frequency (fsw), the spectra is as picture below. A low pass
filter can be used to remove the sideband around switching
frequency. In case of inductive load, no need for the filter since it will
cause the delay for measurement thus affect the control
performance.
Amplitude

f1 fsw 2fsw frequency

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 Modulation index&frequency
• (Amplitude) Modulation index(ma)
increase the index by advanced PWM Vˆref(control
modulation such as Space Vector ma  ˆ )
Modulation (SVM) Vsawtooth
Note. Over-modulation is occurred when
amplitude of reference signal is greater than
carrier waveform.
• (Frequency) Modulation index or modulation mf  fsw(sawtooth)
frequency(mf) f1(control
)
V̂ref V̂sa w

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Application(DC Motor Speed Controller)

LM324

18
Switching frequency does matter?
• The switching frequency(fsw) determine the size of the transformer
and the capacitor. The higher switching frequency, the lower
component size. For example, the linear power supply still use the
50 Hz frequency from the main(considerably very low frequency),
the transformer and the capacitor are very big.

Considering 2 waveforms with the

same duty cycle but different fsw

-Device rating
fsw1
-Power flow
fsw2
-Mechanical smooth
19
 Inductor and Capacitor in steady-state
• This is very very important basic used to VL  L di
analyse power electronic circuits consisting of dt
inductors and capacitors
Inductor current
1. Inductor(L):
-inductor used to store energy in magnetic field
IL(average)
-inductor current cannot change rapidly
(due to energy stored in it) Ts
-According to power balance principle, in steady Inductor voltage
state(inductor current), average voltage across
inductor is zero. (Area under VL is balanced) A Energy dissipated from L
(IL decreased)

1 TsV dt0
Ts 0 L
Energy stored in L
(IL increased)

20
Inductor and Capacitor in steady-state
2. Capacitor(C): iC C dv
-capacitor used to store energy in electric field dt
-capacitor voltage cannot change rapidly Capacitor voltage

(due to energy stored in it)

-According to power balance principle, in steady VC(average)

state(capacitor voltage), average current flowing in

Ts
and out capacitor is zero.(Area under IC is
Capacitor current
balanced)

A Energy discharging from C

(IC decreased)

1 Ts i dt0
Ts 0 C
Energy charging to C
(IC increased)

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 Basic Step-down DC-DC Converter
• Using one switch as a “Chopper” of DC input voltage. As a result, output
voltage can be controlled by the variation of the switch on-time in one
switching period.
Vo
Control
Vin

Switching
Device
TON t
Vin Vout
TS

TO N
VO(a vera)g 
e
1
TS 0 in TS in
V dt TONV

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 Step-down(Buck) DC-DC Converter
• It principle is similar to chopper circuit. When SW is on, input voltage
applies across inductor then inductor current start to flow and when SW is
off, inductor current flows through load and diode.

Note. 1.There are 2 operation mode:

continuous and discontinuous mode.
Only continuous mode is selected for
analysis in this course. 2. LC acts as
SW
low-pass filter.

SW is ON SW is OFF

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 Step-down(Buck) DC-DC Converter
• Analyse by considering inductor voltage in steady state.

IL

1 TsV dt0
Ts 0 L
IO(average)

Ts

1 (V V )dt V dt 0
 TO N Ts
  in O 
Vin-Vo
O 
A TOFF
Ts  0 TO N 
TON (Vin VO)TONVO(Ts TON) 0
B
VO  TON  D
-Vo Vin Ts
Note. Alternatively, calculate from area A= area B 24
 Conduction Mode
• There are 2 operation IL
mode(considering from
inductor current):
1. Continuous conduction Continuous Mode
mode(CCM)
Ts
2. Discontinuous conduction
mode(DCM)
• The boundary condition
determines by inductance At boundary
value, average load
Ts
current, duty cycle and
input voltage.

Discontinuous Mode

Ts

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 Step-up(Boost) DC-DC Converter
• The circuit is used when a higher output voltage than input voltage is required.
When SW is on, neglect on-state voltage of SW, inductor voltage equals to input
voltage and energy is stored. When SW is off, the inductor released the stored
energy to the output and at the same time, input voltage supplies energy to
output.

SW

SW is ON SW is OFF

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 Step-up(Boost) DC-DC Converter
• Analyse by considering inductor voltage in steady state.
IL

IO(average)

1 TsV dt0
Ts 0 L
Ts

1 V dt (V V )dt 0
 TO N Ts
  in  in O 
Vin
A TOFF
Ts  0 TO N 
TON VinTON(Vin VO)(Ts TON) 0
B
VO  Ts  1
Vin-Vo Vin Ts TON 1D
Note. Alternatively, calculate from area A= area B 27
 Step-down and step-up converter
(Buck-Boost converter)
• The combination of buck and boost in one configuration. Duty ratio
determine either step-up or step-down operation.

SW is OFF
SW is ON

28
 Step-down and step-up converter
(Buck-Boost converter)
• Analyse by considering inductor voltage in steady state.
IL

IO(average)

1 TsV dt0
Ts 0 L
Ts

Vin
1 V dt V dt 0
 TO N Ts
A   in  O 
TOFF
Ts  0 TO N 
TON VinTONVO(Ts TON) 0
B
VO  TON  D
-Vo Vin Ts TON 1D
Note. Alternatively, calculate from area A= area B 29
 DC-DC Converter Consideration
• Step-up or Step-down
• Output voltage and maximum current
• Efficiency, Power Loss, Cost
• Voltage gain= Vout/Vin
• Ripple Voltage = ΔVout/Vout

Conclusion Table

Voltage Gain (Vout/Vin) Ripple Voltage(ΔVout/Vout)

Step-down Converter D (1-D)Ts2/8LC*

Step-up Converter 1/(1-D) DTs/RC*
Step-down step-up Converter D/(1-D) DTs/RC*

Note. D=Duty ratio, Ts= switching time period, R = equivalent load resistance
Reference: * Text: Power Electronics:Converter,Applications and Design by Mohan/Undeland/Robbins, 2nd Edition, John
Wiley&Sons INC

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 LM2678
- LM2678-3.3 (3.3Vdc output)
- LM2678-5.0 (5Vdc output)
- LM2678-12 (12Vdc output)
- LM2678-ADJ
(1.2Vdc to 37Vdc output)
Switching Mode Power Supply(SMPS)
• Include DC-DC Converter principle+ High frequency
transformer
• High frequency switching approach smaller components
• Widely used as power supplies in particular for portable
devices; charger, laptop, mobile phone and game

32
 Basic Block Diagram

Switching Circuit

Rectification VDC
PFC Regulator
AC Input Filter Rectification +
(Optional) (Optional)
Output Filter

Switching Transformer

Isolator Control
Transformer or
Optocoupler
PWM Signal System

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• Primary Side
• Switching(Main) Transformer
• Secondary Side

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 Primary Side
• Filter+Rectification
• With PFC(Power Factor Correction) or without PFC.
Note. PFC also requires switching devices and control
circuit to improve power factor.
• Switching Converter: High  Low AC Voltage
- Flyback Converter
- Forward Converter
- Push-pull Converter
- Half-bridge Converter
- Full-bridge Converter
• PWM Control

35
 Closed-loop control system

• The control calculates the switching signal to

switching devices. Measuring signal is the
feedback from the power supply outputs. Control
circuit increases or decreases the duty ratio
depending on load consumption. As a result,
components including transformer are generated
less heat.
• In contrast to linear power supplies, the power
supply deliver its maximum power, even if the
circuit is connected to small load. As a result,
heat and loss are much higher generated.

36
 Basic control system
Voltage Mode
Control

37
PWM Control IC
 Step-down converter by TL494

Note. All C in µF 39
 Secondary Side

• Output Rectification:
High frequency pulse DC
Power Schottky Rectifier(Diode)
or Fast Recovery Diode
• Output Filter: LC
• Regulator: for different
voltage outputs; 3.3V, 5V, 12V etc

41
 Other Components

• Temp sensor, i.e.

Thermistor
• Input Filter i.e. EMI and
Output Filter (low-pass)
• Isolation transformer or
optocoupler for PWM
control
• Isolation transformer for
isolated power supplies

42