CHAPTER 6

INTRODUCTION TO TUNNELS & BRIDGES

1
INTRODUCTION TO TUNNEL &
BRIDGE

Part I- Tunnels

Tunneling

Uncertainty Engineering,

Hidden Activity
 6.1 Definition and Function of Tunnel
Definition of a tunnel

 A tunnel is an underground passageway, completely enclosed

except for openings or egress, commonly at each end.

 A tunnel is an artificially constructed underground passageway

for move of mankind, animals, water or goods. For example,
underpass, water conduits, diversion tunnels, subway, highway
tunnels, and railway tunnels, etc.

A tunnel is relatively long and narrow; in general, the length is

more (usually much more) than twice the diameter.
6.1 Definition and Function of Tunnel

Tunnels for different

usages
 Function of Tunnel

Functions of a tunnel

A tunnel may be for  routing power cables, or

 foot traffic  telecommunication cables, or
 vehicular road traffic  permitting wildlife to cross
 rail traffic highways, or
 a canal  giving an entrance to escape
 aqueducts to supply water for from an area, fortifications, or
consumption or for  storages, etc.
hydroelectric stations or for
sewers
 Function of Tunnel
(1) Form of tunnel
1. Main body building—tunnel portal and tunnel trunk. The
role is to keep the stability of tunnel and to ensure the safe
operation of train.

2. Ancillary building—refuge hole, drainage and ventilation

facilities. To ensure the safety, maintenance and repair of tunnel.
 Function of Tunnel- Main body building
(a) tunnel trunk
The materials should have enough Tunnel lining and support
strength and durability; While on special design
section, there also requires anti-freeze,
- Rock mass classification
anti-permeability and resistance for
erosion. - Loads etc
 Function of Tunnel- Main body building
(b) tunnel portal

The main question is to choose the location of entrance:

To considerate it combined with the terrain, geology,
hydrogeology, construction and operation conditions
 Aerodynamic Design of Portals
Staggered arrangement of portals for reducing air recirculation, i.e. the
intake of warm and humid waste air from the exit tube into the entrance
tube is reduced
Issues have to be
taken into account
for the design of the
portals
1. Recirculation -partly
high temperatures and
humidity are expected
in the tunnel., i.e. the
intake of warm and
humid waste air from
the exit tube into the
3. During the passage high-speed trains through entrance tube,
portals characteristic and strong pressure
fluctuations are generated, which can affect 2. To ensure safety on roads passing
the comfort of train passengers. Therefore, the near the portals, fog generated by
pressure fluctuations must be attenuated with waste air must be avoided as far
suitable measures. as possible.
 Function of Tunnel- ancillary building
(c) ancillary building
1. refuge hole
the small ones — to ensure the safety of workers
the big ones — to store the materials
There sets a small hole per 60m and a big hole per 300m on
both sides of the tunnel.

2. ventilation facilities- to expel from harmful gas

Two forms: natural ventilation and mechanical ventilation.

3. drainage facilities- to drain out water (from seepage or

GWT ) with longitudinal drains to minor side outlet tunnels
 INTRODUCTION TO TUNNEL

(2) clearance of tunnel

single line double line single line double line

the structure approaching clearance

the tunnel clearance b. electric power drawing
a. vapor and lights drawing
Typical Underground Space
 Cross section and Notations in tunneling
Ground surface

Overburden/Cover

Ventilation
Height

Altitude/Elevation

Shotcrete
Width/Span

Rock bolt

Longitudinal sections of heading

Chainage
Cross sections (Profiles) Popular profiles

Mouth (oblate) profile

Circular profile

Rectangle 14
Horse shoe
Various profiles are conceivable

15
 Railway tunnel profile

Two tracks One track

16
Aerodynamic pressure rise

Fig. 1.16. Piston moving within a tube An aerodynamic pressure rise

 causes discomfort
of the passengers
(unless the cars are
pressure-tight), and,
 Produces noise
near exit, and,
 constitutes a load
acting upon the
lining.

17
 Choice of tunnel alignment

1. Depends on geotechnical conditions, traffic, hydrological, risk

management, excavation method (drill & blast or TBM).
2. To minimize the disturbance of the environment, aspects of
vibration (e.g. due to blasting), noise and ventilation should be
considered.
3. In road tunnels, straight alignments longer than 1,500m should
be avoided, as they could distract the driver.
4. Furthermore, to avoid excessive concentration on one point,
the last few meters of a tunnel should have a gentle curve in
plan view.
 Choice between a high level tunnel and a base tunnel

 A high level tunnel is much shorter and reduces geological risk

(because of the reduced cover). On the other hand, the operation is
more expensive because of increased power consumption and
increased wear of the wagons. Velocity is reduced and traffic
interruptions or delays during winter must be factored in.

 A base tunnel is much longer and, therefore, much more expensive and
difficult to construct. But it offers many operational advantages. 22
Installations in tunnels：
 Installation for traffic control
 Installation for telecommunication
 Ventilation
 Fire protection
 Illumination of road tunnels
 Drainage

20
 Design methods tunneling
Design of tunnel support
Analytical methods
Observational methods
Empirical methods
All the methods requires geological input data and consideration of statutory
safety regulations.

Rock log samples

21
 Uncertainties in tunneling
 Load ?
 Material (rock condition) ?
 Water ?
 Caves ?
 Shear zones ?

22
 Empirical methods
Rock classifications are the best know empirical approach
for assessing the stability of underground openings in rock ,
including:
RSR, Rock Structure Rating, 1972, by Wickham
RMR, Rock Mass Rating, 1973, by Bieniawski
Q system, 1974, by N. Barton

The empirical approach, based on rock

mass classifications, is the most popular
probably because of its basic purpose of
simplicity and ability to managing
uncertainties.
 Six parameters are used in estimating RMR:
 Uniaxial compressive strength of intact rock material, R1
 rock quality designation RQD, R2
Experience suggests that:
 joint or discontinuity spacing, R3
10 points should be
 joint condition, R4 added to get RMR for
 ground water condition, R5 and undisturbed rock masses
in situations where
 joint orientation, R6. TBMs or road headers
RMR  R1  R2  R3  R4  R5  R6 are used for tunnel
excavation;

Application of RMR- Support Pressure 3 to 5 points may be

added depending upon
the quality of the
controlled blasting.

Goel and Jethwa (1991)

Q-System , Rock Mass Quality Norwegian Geotechnical Institute (NGI)

Approximate measures of:

 Rock Quality Designation (RQD)
The RQD value in percentage is the rating of RQD for the Q
system. In case of a poor rock mass where RQD is less than 10
percent, a minimum value of 10 should be used to evaluate Q.
Joint Set Number (Jn)
Joint Roughness and Joint Alteration (Jr and Ja)
Joint Water Reduction Factor (Jw)
Stress Reduction Factor (SRF)

Formula relating to Q value

RMR 10
RMR  9 ln Q  44 E (GPa)  10 40

RQD 1  Jr
c   c V p  3.5  log Q   tab (  J w )
1
Jn SRF 100 Ja

Settlement at crown: (mm) 

SPAN (m) Support
pressure:
Pr  0.1Q 1 / 3
Q
Rock support design by Q-chart
ROCK CLASSES
G F E D C B A
Exceptionally Extremely Very Very Ext. Exc.
poor Poor Fair Good
poor poor good good good
100 20
2.5 m
2.3 m

Bolt length in m for ESR = 1

a 2.1 m
d are
h o tcrete 1.7 m
s
50
pa c ing in 1.5 m 11
s
Bolt 1.3 m
7
1.0 m
Span or height in m

20 5
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
CCA RRS Sfr Sfr Sfr B(+S) B sb
10 4.0 m 3
ESR

3.0 m

cm

m
cm cm

cm
cm

4c
s
12
25 15 9
re a

5
5 a 2.4
2.0 m
et ed
r
otc
1.6 m n sh
u
in
2 c ing
a 1.5
1.3 m
lt sp
Bo
1.0 m

1
0.001 0.004 0.01 0.04 0.1 0.4 1 4 10 40 100 400 1000

RQD Jr Jw
Rock mass quality Q = x x
Jn Ja SRF

REINFORCEMENT CATEGORIES: 5) Fibre reinforced shotcrete and bolting, 5 - 9 cm, Sfr + B

1) Unsupported 6) Fibre reinforced shotcrete and bolting, 9- 12 cm, Sfr + B
2) Spot bolting, sb 7) Fibre reinforced shotcrete and bolting, 12 - 15 cm, Sfr + B
3) Systematic bolting, B 8) Fibre reinforced shotcrete, > 15 cm,
4) Systematic bolting, reinforced ribs of shotcrete and bolting, Sfr, RRS+B
(and unreinforced shotcrete, 4 - 10 cm), B(+S) 9) Cast concrete lining, CCA
Estimating support pressure from Q value
 Observational methods

Rely on actual monitoring of ground

movement during excavation to
detect measurable instability, and on
the analysis of ground-support
interaction, including:
NATM, New Austrian Tunneling Method
NMT, Norwegian Method of Tunneling
ITM, Informational Tunneling Method
 Analytical methods
Utilize the analyses of stresses and deformations around openings.
They include such techniques:
Closed form solutions
Numerical methods (FEM, FDM, BEM, DEM etc.);
Analogy simulations
 Electrical
 Photo-elastic
Physical modeling.

Displacement vector Yielding zone

Key steps in numerical modeling
Establishment of the computational model
Boundary condition
Selection of constitutive models
Material parameters
Initial stresses
Excavation process
Support application
Convergence-confinement method
The convergence-confinement method (CCM, it is also called
rock support-interaction analysis) is to design the rock support by
determining the interaction point of rock action lines and support
action lines.
Pressure on support
pa ground action
line ua pa

umax
a
support action
k line Rock support design
A given allowable deformation umax
u0 Convergence u
a Stiffness, K (support type)
Installation time, or deformation (u0)
 Simplified design chart for tunneling

Engineering Function, size, shape, layout,

constraints method of excavation

Objectives Safety, stability, economy

Determination of Geological structure, rock properties,

input data ground water, In situ stress

Design methods Analytical, empirical, geological,

observation, compliance

Output Roof span, support guidelines, effect of

specification intersection and adjacent excavation

Feedback
Monitoring instrumentation,
engineering measures 33
 Input data
1. Geological structure:
• Site investigation, borehole logging, rock mapping
2. Rock properties
• Stiffness (Young’s modulus, Poisson ratio)
• Strength (UCS, tensile strength, cohesion, friction angle)
• Uniaxial compression test, triaxial compresion test,
brazilian shear test, point load test, shear test, tension test,
rock mapping
3. Ground water
• Site investigation, ground water monitoring
4. In situ stress
• Site investigation, stress measurement
Rock mass = intact rock + joints (Fractures)

From ISO (boundary b/n soil and rock)

Rock: UCS≥0.6MPa
Soil: UCS<0.6MPa
 Assumptions in tunneling analysis
 Homogeneous  Circular tunnel
 Continuous  Infinite overburden
 Isotropic  No water
 Elastic or, elastic ideal plastic but
obey Mohr-Coulomb Criteria

36
Rock deformation changes along advancing
y = 0.0023x 5 + 0.029x 4 + 0.1195x 3 + 0.22x 2 + 0.2154x + 0.1197

distanc
距掌子面距离（D）
5 4 3
e2 1 0 -1 -2 -3
0%

20%

deformation
40%
掌

周边位移
Tunnel advancing
开挖方向 Worki
子
60%
面
ng face
80%

100%

y = 0.0033x 5 - 0.0468x 4 + 0.2602x 3 - 0.7558x 2 + 1.3053x - 0.1977

 6.2 Tunneling techniques

 NATM, New Austrian Tunneling Method

 NMT, Norwegian Method of Tunneling
 ITM, Informational Tunneling Method
 NATM
The New Austrian Tunneling Method (NATM) is a misnomer,
as it is not a method of tunneling but a strategy for tunneling
which does have a considerable uniformity and sequence.

The NATM is based on the philosophy of "Build as you

go" approach with the following caution.

Not too stiff, Nor too flexible

Not too early, Nor too late
The New Austrian Tunneling Method (NATM) appears most
suitable for soft ground which can be machine or manually
excavated,
where jointing and over break are not dominant,
Where a smooth profile can often be formed by smooth
blasting and,
where a complete load bearing ring can (and often should) be
established.
Basic principles of NATM are:
 Mobilization rock mass strength,
 Rock bolt and shotecrete protection (soft support) to
preserve the load-carrying capacity of the rock mass,
 Monitoring the deformation of the excavated rock mass,
 Providing flexible but active supports, and
 Closing of invert to form a load-bearing support ring to
control deformation of the rock mass.
 NMT
Norwegian Method of Tunneling (NMT)
NMT appears most suitable for good rock even where jointing and
over break are dominant, and where drill and blasting method or
hard rock TBM's are the most usual methods of excavation.

Bolting is the dominant form of rock support since it mobilizes the

strength of the surrounding rock mass in the best possible way.

It is understood in NMT that [B+S(fr)] are the two most versatile

tunnel support methods, yet devised and used extensively, because
they can be applied to any profile as temporary or as a permanent.
 ITM

ITM (Informational Tunneling Method) has become the

dominant method in tunneling. It combines advantages from
NATM, NMT, etc. and adopts new development in modern
technologies to collect informational data during the tunneling.
 Geological data
 Rock deformation data
 Rock support stress
 Construction quality data
 Environmental data (gas density, working face monitoring,
etc.)
 Other data
Quiz

Shallow overburden/cover has a drawback in tunneling

technique. Explain why?
 Tunnel construction techniques
1. Open cut
2. Tunneling

Summary
Features of tunneling：
 Tunneling method changes with geological condition；
 Less working face, usually 2 working faces only;
 Narrow working space, more disturbances to each other；
 Poor construction environment, poor air quality, dark, wet;
 Difficult in repair during operation.
 Traditional
Sequential
Cut and cover
Open cut Reverse

Trench
Tunneling
methods Drill and blast
Blast
Shallow tunneling
Tunneling

Shield
Non-blast
TBM

Jacking
Open cut sequence
type of tunnel sections
cast lining

assembly lining
 盖挖顺做法
Sequential 盖挖逆做法
Reverse

Cut
and
cover
The reverse cut & cover method is applicable:
 There are important building or structures nearby;
 A big horizontal pressure;
 A deep excavation;
 A quick close.
Partial excavation

Partial excavation
Trench method
Immersed tube tunnels

Immersed tube tunnel sections

 Chapter 6
Part II - Railway Bridges

Build a bridge, then you will have friends!

Layout and components Railway Bridge
Introduction to Railway Bridge
 Bridge components: use and functionality

(1) Functions

function： be convenient for the train to cross over the river

and the valley or other buildings.
Types based on function:
bridges cross over the river
bridges cross over the valley
bridges cross over the line or highway
bridges cross over the downtown, industrial estate or crop
area
 Bridge components: use and functionality

(2) The structure

It includes： bridge floor, bridge superstructure, bridge pier
and its foundation.

bridge superstructure

bridge pier and its foundation

 Bridge components: use and functionality

Load Transfer
 Bridge components:
use and functionality- Deck Configuration
Deck Configuration
Bridge components: use and functionality
Bridge components: use and functionality
 Bridge components: use and functionality
(3) Types of bridges

1) beam bridge

2) arch bridge
 Bridge components: use and functionality

3) rigid frame bridge

4) suspension bridge

5) combined system bridge

Bridge components: use and functionality
Based on Material Type
Bridge components: use and functionality
Based on Span Length

Short Bridges: 6-30m

Medium Bridges 30-100m
Long Bridges > 100m
 Types of Bridges
According to whether the main structure is below, above, or
coincides with the deck line.
 Main Structure Below the Deck Line

 Main Structure above the Deck Line

 Main Structure Coincides with the Deck Line
 (4) Index of bridge design
1) length—distance between two sides’ retaining wall
2) Span—distance between two support point of bridge
superstructure
3)Aperture—distance between two bridge superstructures on the
design level
4)Clearance - vertical height from the design level to the bottom of
bridge floor
length
span
bridge superstructure

aperture aperture aperture

roadbed design level
usual level

bridge pier and its foundation

 Bridge components: use and functionality

(4) structures of bridge superstructure

1) beam structure
①simply supported beam—one hole and one beam
 Bridge components: use and functionality

② continuous beam—one beam with many holes

a.a.parallel
parallelchord
chord

b. curve-above chord
b. curve-above chord

c. curve-below chord
 Bridge components: use and functionality
2) arch structure
 Bridge components: use and functionality
① Force Analysis
Q- load
h
f-horizontal resistance
f f
F-rise-span ratio: F= h / L
L
L-span
h-vector
F≤1/6 is jack arch; F>1/6 is steep arch

② can use materials which has great resistance to

pressure and not easy be stretched.
③ demand higher requirements for geological conditions.
 Bridge components: use and functionality
⑤ According to the structure, it can be divided into spandrel
filled arch and open spandrel arch.

spandrel filled arch

open spandrel arch

 Bridge components: use and functionality
According to force support, it can be divided into above-
support, middle-support and below-support.
 Bridge components: use and functionality
3) rigid frame structure
types:
gate-type
Bridge components: use and functionality
leg-inclined type
 Bridge components: use and functionality
4) combined system structure
Bridge components: use and functionality
Bridge components: use and functionality
(5) bridge pier and its foundation

1)function: support the bridge superstructure

Bridge components: use and functionality
2) types
Bridge components: use and functionality
 Design Loadings for Railway Bridges

Design Live Load

Design Live Load