RAILWAY ENGINEERING

(CENG 5242)

CHAPTER 2
RAILWAY LINE & SUBGRADE
Chapter 2 Railway Line & Sub grade

Contents
Part-I
Economic survey and route selection of railway line
Selection of main technical standards
Plane section design
Longitudinal section design
Part II
Standard sub grade sections and design
Drainage of roadbed
Safeguards & strength of roadbed
 Introduction
• Rail line is the foundation of operation.
• It is a whole structure consisted of the roadbed, bridge building
and rail.
• Center line of the route is all about every Thing!
– Economy(cost)
– Safety
– Type of structures to design etc… all determined by CL.
– Station location
track
sleeper
Ballaste
d bed

Road
bed
Typical ballasted
track section
 2.1 Economic survey and route selection
Three stages：
1. Earlier stage: research, survey and preliminary design work.
2. Basic construction stage ：first to do the measurement,
technical design and construction design, then begin to
construct it, finally check it into production.
3. Effect of feedback：several years later, to evaluate the
design and construction quality by investigate the engineering
quality, technical index and economic benefits.
Construction + maintenance

Study and design

Feedback & evaluation
 Route selection…
Route selection criteria： Balancing these
- shortest , direct route, parameters and
requirements
- detour unsuitable geology, link important sites
- Cost effective (user & construction)
- Minimum earthwork,
- locally materials,
- Environmental friendly
- aesthetic value etc.

target
 Survey and Economy- for classification
- Railway level based on the annual volume of freight and
passenger
- Directly affect your survey & route selection

According to the economic importance, Chinese classification

Railway Volume of freight

Status
level and passenger

Level Ⅰ play the backbone role ≥20Mt

play the backbone role ＜20Mt
Level Ⅱ Play the contact and
≥10Mt
auxiliary role
Level Ⅲ Serve for a region ＜10Mt
 Selection of main technical standards
1) Design speed
shall be determined after technical and economic
comparisons in terms of the project role in railway
passenger and fright transport network, transport
demand, engineering specifications to meet the demand
of travel time target.
2) Maximum gradient
 The maximum gradient is the steepest grade allowed to be used on
a railway line.
 The maximum gradient shall be determined according to the
design speed, locomotive power, traffic organization mode, safety
and ride comfort, annual volume of traffic, etc.
 Selection of main technical standards…

3) Numbers of main lines

-double track or single track railway

4) Minimum plane curve radius

 Minimum plane curve radius is the minimum one to be
used in a projected railway.
 Minimum plane curve radius shall be determined
according to railway classification, designed speed, traffic
organization mode, safety and ride comfort, and
engineering working conditions, etc
 Selection of main technical standards…
5) Available length of arrival and departure line
 Arrival-departure lines are built at stations specially for train
reception and departure
 The available length of arrival and departure line is the
maximum length of arrival and departure line that can be
used to trains stopping without influencing the operation
working on adjacent lines

6) Kind of traction and types of locomotives(or EMU type)

 There three kinds of traction in railway industry, electric traction,
diesel traction and vapor traction.
 Kind of tractive energy greatly influences the railway with respect
to traffic capacity, line standard and economy.
 Selection of main technical standards…
7）Tonnage Ratings

• Tonnage ratings tell how many tons a given locomotive

can haul over a particular engine district

• Comparative tonnage ratings over alternative routes can

be a major factor in route location.

• In building trains，yardmasters need to know how many

tons can be placed behind a given locomotive consist or
what horsepower is needed to move a proposed tonnage
 Railway system interaction

Traction power
(electrical calculation)
Communication signal
(earthing and electrical Traction power
（ pantograph
connection)
net interaction）

Train control
（vehicle/communication
signal）

Civil engineering
(tunnel,
bridge,sound
barrier)

Track/turnout
Wheel-rail
(vehicle/track)

subgrade
Railway Alignment Design and
Geometry

Topics
•Horizontal Alignment and
•Profile/Vertical geometry
•Subgrade structure
Permanent way
 2.2 Plane section of Railroad line

Centre line is used to show the place of a line in space.

Line AB is the center line of the track as well as cross section of
the track.
 Alignment
 Railway alignment means space position of the
central line of railway permanent way. It is
expressed in the line linked central points of
cross-section longitudinally, as in figure right. It is
called as center line in short.
 Planar and longitudinal section of alignment
 Plane and profile sections
• The planar projection of centre line is called plane
section of the rail; and its vertical projection is called
longitudinal section of the rail.
• The plane section of the rail is consisted of straight line
and curve (circular curve and easement curve).

plane section of the rail longitudinal section

of the rail
1. Plane design
Constituent parts of the curve

The curve is set when the line turns

or when to straight lines intersect.
It includes：
curve radius, R
corner curve, α
curve length, L
Tangent length, T
easement curve length, L0 .
 Composition of plane design
- circular curve
When out of consideration of easement
curve:
tangent length:

curve length:

External length:
R
arc length of L0: L m
180
(1)Curve radius’s effect for
operating

It is harmful while it is small, because:

• Limit the speed of train;

• Increase wheel abrasion;

• Increase rail equipment;

• Increase maintenance costs.

(2)The relationship of speed and curve radius
hR V - speed of train，km/h；
V h - elevation of outer rail，mm；
11.8
R - curve radius ，m
(3) The maximum speed on curve
The maximum permissible value for elevation of
outer rail:
 125mm for single track，and 150mm for
double track.
 In addition, can consider some inadequate
superelevation, 70mm for ordinary district and
90mm for hard district.
And the formula can be: V 
 hmax  hq  R
11.8
 3. Easement curve
Easement curve is set between straight line and circular curve.

easement
curve
circula
r
curve
outer rail

inner rail

(a) Without easement curve (b) With easement curve

(1) Characteristic of easement curve
۞ Its curve radius decreased gradually from the infinite to circular
curve radius R, or on the contrary;

۞ While running, the centrifugal force of train is gradually added or

gradually reduced;

۞ The widen value of track gauge is also gradually added or gradually

reduced;

۞ And so as to the elevation of outer rail.

It is set for safety and riding comfortableness.

(2) Formula of easement curve

Y - ordinate, m;

X - abscissa, m;

R - circular curve radius , m;

L0 - easement curve length, m.

Curve Level l Level Ⅱ Level Ⅲ
radius
（m） （1） （2） （3） （1） （2） （3） （1） （2）

4000 30 30 20 20 20 20 20 20
3000 40 30 20 30 20 20 20 20
2500 50 40 20 30 30 20 20 20
2000 60 50 30 40 30 20 20 20
1500 80 70 40 50 40 30 30 20
1200 100 80 50 60 50 30 30 30
1000 120 100 60 70 60 40 40 30
800 150 120 70 90 70 40 50 40
700 150 120 90 70 40 40 50 40
600 140 110 90 110 90 60 60 60
550 140 110 90 130 110 70 70 50
500 130 100 90 130 100 80 70 60
450 120 100 80 120 100 80 80 80
400 120 90 80 120 90 80 90 70
350 110 90 70 110 90 70 100 70
300 100 80 70 100 70

250 90 70
3) Element calculation

tangent
length:

curve
length:

external
distance:

length of
tangent:

inset :
 Length of easement curve
1) calculated according to the diminishing gradient of
superelevation
The principle: the inside wheel which is impending can‘t climb
up the rail.
point of
outside wheel
h

point of
inside wheel
 h if h and i0 are known, so :
 i0 
L 0 h
 i0  k L0  (m)
L
min

max
i 0

Kmin- the minimum height of wheel(mm); L0 —length of easement curve (m);

Lmax- the maximum wheelbase(mm); h —superelevation(mm) .
I0 -gradient of superelevation, usually
≯2‰;

2) calculated according to the comfort level of passengers

The principle: wheel’s speed of up and down cannot be too fast.
h h  Vmax
f  (mm / s) f — speed of wheel
L0 Vmax 3.6 L0 L0 — length of easement curve (m);
h  Vmax h — superelevation(mm) .
L 0
 ( m)
3.6f
 rules:
Existing lines
ordinary district: f=28mm/s and
L0≥10h/Vmax
hard district : f=40mm/s and
L0≥7h/Vmax

of which, Vmax is the real maximal velocity, km/h.

ordinary district: f=32mm/s
new lines
hard district : f=40mm/s
of which, Vmax is the designed maximal velocity, km/h.
Attentions :
① use the two methods to work out L0 , chose the bigger one;
② length of L0 is usually between 20-150m. 28
 Principles of straight Line
-Straight lines shall be to reduce intersections, based on topography
-To reduce curve resistance which can be calculated as;

-Intermediate straight line /b/n two adjacent curves

•Track maintenance requirement
•2-3 standard rail
•orient maintaining machine
•prevent lateral swing of train-safety and comfort,
•to avoid vibration
4. same direction adjacent curve, reverse curve and
intermediate straight line

Definition

•The two same directional curve are

called same direction adjacent curve;

•And the two adverse directional curve

are called reverse curve;

The line between them is called

intermediate straight line.
The length of intermediate:

Rail level Ordinary district Hard district

Ⅰ 80 40

Ⅱ 60 30

Ⅲ 50 25
 5. Train resistance
Basic resistance: the resistance exists even the train is running
on flat and straight line; it resists any time;
Additional resistance: such as ramp resistance, curve resistance,
tunnel resistance and so on; the direction of the additional
resistance and the train are opposite.
curve additional resistance:
The resistance is larger on curve than on the straight line;
the increased part is called curve additional resistance,
curve resistance for short.
causes:
when running on curve, there exists more friction.
 ωr - unit curve
Formula :
resistance(N/KN);
600
  （N/KN）
r R R - curve radius(m);
600 - experiment data.

600
From  r  R （N/KN） The minimum curve radius:
minimum curve radius
we know: the smaller Rail Speed
level (km/h) Hard
Ordinary district
the curve radius is, the district
160 2000 1600
larger curve resistance Ⅰ 120 1200 800

there exists, the more 80 500 450

120 1000 800
adverse influence it has. Ⅱ
80 450 400
100 600 550
Ⅲ
80 400
Principles of determining minimum radius
 Superelevation
Raising the outside rail a distance
h in mm above the inside rail
1. Elevate outside rail by h or
2. elevate outside rail by h/2 and
lower inside rail by h/2
 Superelevation formula

For standard gauge track, s= 1500mm

 Maximum allowable superelevation
From the requirements of safety operation and stability of train and
travelling comfort of passengers (when it negotiates the curve or stops at
the curve in case of emergency)
- with some eccentricity factor of safety of center of mass of the train
- it should be limited to some value
On any curve there is always
unbalanced superelevation.
- Deficient superelevation

- Surplus superelevation
Maximum allowable superelevation- AREMA Calculation
Overbalance, Equilibrium and Underbalanced

Source: AREMA
 Minimum radius, maximum radius and
maximum speed at curve
1. -from comfort and stability requirement minimum radius
of the curve should be determined
2. -from track maintenance and regularity the maximum
radius should be limited to allowable value

۞ Maximum speed at the curve also has to satisfy stability

and comfort against overturning.

Railway clearance,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, /chapter 5, 6/

Vertical and lateral clearances
Plane of a
line
2.3. Profile design of Railway Line

Main design components are

1. Gradient (algebraic difference)
2. Vertical curve (sag or crest)
3. Radius of curve
 2.3. The longitudinal section of rail line
The longitudinal section of rail line is consisted of flat road,
ramp and vertical curve.

1. The gradient and vertical curve

 Features of grade
section Gradient
Altitude of
two grade
change
points
Length of grade
section

Gradient and length are used to What to do…?

represent characteristic of grade
section.
Length of grade section is refer to
the horizontal range between two
grade change points.
 Vertical Geometry - Grades
Rail – rarely exceeds 1%
(2-2.5% for industry lines)
Highway –
4% common
6% on ramps
Up to 8% on
county roads

LRT – maximum 4 to 6%
Up to 10% for short sections
 2. Radius of vertical curves

- Ensure No derailment
- Riding comfort
- No coupler separation
- Meet maintenance requirement

sag or crest vertical curves

Take care
Minimum length of grade section……… of phasing
of curves
 2. Additional resistance for gradient

It exists when train is running on the ramp.

Its value i (N/KN) is equal to the thousandth of

gradient.

There are positive and negative additional

resistance for gradient, the negative one has the
same effect as traction.
 3. Limiting gradient and pusher grade
（1）Selection for limiting gradient
The bigger the gradient is, the bigger the resistance there exists,
and the smaller the train traction weight is.

Definition:
The gradient which can decide the maximum cargo weight of a
locomotive is called the limiting gradient.
It is often equaled to the maximum gradient.
 (2) Conversion gradient
If there has curve on the ramp, the additional resistance is
include of additional resistance for curve and gradient.
so: ＝ r   i The conversion gradient:
ic ‰＝ r   i  ‰   ir  i  ‰
Example: Evaluate the conversion gradient of BC section.(length
of train is 800m).
(3）The pusher grade
On some special hard sections, we can :
a) Build a tunnel to across it;
b) or use a ramp with its gradient beyond the limiting gradient,
which is called the pusher grade .
4. longitudinal profile of railway
 Design Views
• Rail Track Interface • 3-D model

Sample software output

 Part -II
Railway Sub grade
Definition :
 is the prepared earth on which the railroad ballast section
and track structure are built

A sub grade is an earth structure, which is formed through

excavating or filling and can bear the track structure
directly, including section sub grade and sub grade of
station and yard.

 Railway sub grade is the foundation of the track, it inherit

and pass on the weight of track and the moving load of
train
 Characteristics
The sub grade is the weakest and most unstable part in railway line
.
works. If the sub grade does not have sufficient stability, it’ll be
impossible to maintain proper track alignment, profile(surface) and
cross level.

In order to ensure the smoothness of the track, following

conditions shall be satisfied during the design.

Main Design contents:-

a) Control of sub grade deformation
b) Evenness of sub grade rigidity roadbed
c) Stability under train operation;
d) Stability under natural conditions
The four basic geometric features are:
 Width of top of subgrade or bottom of cut
 Height of fill or depth of cut
 Side slopes of fill or cut
 Provision for drainage
Typical Section - Railroad
Two main functions of the railroad subgrade are:
To bear the traffic load without becoming damaged
To drain off the water to the side.
 1. Roadbed sections
Usually, the cross section perpendicular to the center line is called the
roadbed section.
According to the topography and the shape of the cross section, the
roadbed section can be divided into six types.
Typical section - multiple tracks

•Track centerlines minimum 13’ apart

•Roadbed sloped to drain
•Sometimes wider shoulders for maintenance purposes
 Roadbed sections cont..
(1) Embankment
The roadbed forms through filling of soil and stone, while the
design of which is above ground.

roadbed

ground

(2) Roadbed without filling or digging

The design of roadbed is the same as ground, and it can directly
be laid on the ground.
roadbed

ground
 Roadbed sections cont..
(3) Through cut
The roadbed forms through digging, while the design of which
is under ground.

ground

roadbed
 Roadbed sections cont..

(4) Half-embankment
roadbed
In the mountain areas, some of
the roadbed is formed through ground
filling.

(5) Side-hill cut

The roadbed is formed through filling and digging.

ground

roadbed
 (6) half through cut
In the mountain areas, some of the roadbed is formed through digging.

ground

roadbed

Generalized
Roadway is the strip of land containing the track, ditches, and
other facilities needed for the operation of the railroad

Roadway width must be wide enough to accommodate the track

side ditches portion of embankment or cut slopes parallel service
roads and other structures and facilities necessary for the
operation of the railroad
 2. Form of roadbed
top surface
reality road shoulder

Roadbed side slope

ancillary
facilities

road shoulder road shoulder

top surface

side slope side slope

a) top surface of roadbed
Top surface of roadbed is where the rail laid on;
width of top surface is refer to the distance from one side of the
road shoulder to another side.

width of top surface

form with road camber

form without road camber

 the shape
with road camber: soil without water permeability
[ladder-shaped—single line and triangle—double line]
without road camber: soil with water permeability
 characteristic
a. the roadbed without road camber is higher;
b. on curve section, the outside roadbed must be widen;
 width of top surface
factors: d. thickness of ballast bed —
0.35~0.5m
a. railway level
e. shape of sleeper
b. track level
f. single line or double lines
c. soil property
Calculation
a. single line:
with road camber :
B = 2C + 2x + A
without road camber:
B = 2C + 2m(h1+h2) + A
B—width of top surface
C—width of roadbed’s shoulder
x—width of side slope
A—width of ballast bed
b. double line(soil without water permeability)
B = 2C + 2x + A + D
b) road shoulder and side slope
Road shoulder: those part without ballast bed;
Side slope: the slope apart from road shoulder.

Function of road shoulder：

1) bear the force, strengthen
road side slope the stability of roadbed
shoulder 2) keep ballast bed compacted
3) be convenient for the
setting of signs
4) for the walk of workers
 ② safeguards
(3) Ancillary facilities
Function ：to ensure the
strength and stability of
roadbed.
① Drainage facility

vegetation

drainage
ditch

retaining wall
 Design of sub grade surface

 Shape of the sub grade surface: 4% crown slope/herringbone

drainage slopes are set from the sub grade center to both sides ant
the sub grade surface shall remain triangular when the curve is
widened.
Width of the sub grade surface:
•It shall be determined according to following factors,
design speed, long-term tack type, number of main
line, distance between centers of lines, curve
widening, sedimentation and widening of road
shoulders, road maintenance type (mechanical
maintenance or manual maintenance), the overhead
contact system tower and setup of cable trench and
pit etc.
•There are corresponding specified speed target values for
standard sub grade with different width in straight sections.
Generally railway subgrade design content includes:

a. Design of subgrade surface (shape, width, formation level etc.)

b. Design of subgrade bed (thickness, filling materials and
compacting requirements)
c. Design of embankment
d. Design of cutting
e. Design of transitional section
f. Ground treatment (mainly for the embankment base and the
cutting foundation base in special cases)
g. Side slope supporting and retaining and protection (including
embankment and cutting)
h. Design of subgrade drainage system
i. Design of cut-fill adjustment
j. Design of land utilization
Subgrade design procedures:
1. Determine Allowable subgrade stress
2. Determine stress at sub ballast-subgrade interface due to
superstructure load
3. Compare load stress with allowable stress
4. Determine formation/natural ground bearing capacity
5. Based on formation layer stress determine the
thickness/depth of subgrade
Ballast depth (ballast and subballast combined) = f(applied stress, tie
reaction, and allowable subgrade stress)
Different countries develop their own formula to determine the depth of
formation level.
–Talbot Equation
h = (16.8Pa/Pc)4/5,
where -h = Support ballast depth, Pa= Stress at bottom of tie (top of
ballast), Pc= Allowable subgrade stress
Note: Stress distribution independent of material
–Japanese National Railways Equation
Pc= 50Pa/(10+h1.25)
–Boussinesq Equation
Pc= 6P/2πh2 ,where P = wheel load (lbs)
–Love’s Formula
Pc= Pa (1-[1/ (1+r2/h2)] 3/2)
Where, r = Radius of a loaded circle whose area equals the effective
tie bearing area under one rail
 Subgrade Allowable Stress (Pressure)
 "Traditional" design value of 20 psi
AREMA recommends limiting stress to 25 psi

Using soil strength with a factor of safety

 AREMA recommends a factor of safety of at least 2 and as
much as 5 or more depending on the traffic (wheel loads and
load repetitions) and soil conditions.
Company design standards will dictate (e.g. Army allows a
design unconfined compressive strength (qu) of 1.0 qu for
"normal" traffic levels -less than 5 MGT/yr -and design of 0.8
quwhen traffic levels exceed 5 MGT.)
Hay recommends factor of safety of 1.5 as applied to an
ultimate bearing capacity of <2.5 qu, thus allowable stress
<1.67 qu.
 Thickness of sub grade bed

Bottom Layer Total Thickness of

Designed Speed Surface Layer Thickness Subgrade Bed
(km/h) Thickness (m) (m)
(m)
V≤160 0.6 1.9 2.5
V＝200 0.6 1.9 2.5
200＜V ≤250 0.7 2.3 3
V≥300 0.4 2.3 2.7
V≥300 with ballast
V≥300 0.7 2.3 3
V≥300 without ballast
 Material type

Designed Speed Surface Layer of Sub Bottom Layer of Sub grade

(km/h) grade Bed Bed
(m) (m)
V≤160
Group A filling materials Group A or Group B filling
materials or improved soil
V＝200
Graded crushed stone or Group A or Group B filling
graded sand gravel materials or improved soil
200＜V ≤250
Graded crushed stone Group A or Group B filling
materials or improved soil
V≥300
V≥300 with ballast Graded crushed stone Group A or Group B filling
materials or improved soil
V≥300
V≥300 without Graded crushed stone Group A or Group B filling
ballast materials or improved soil
Ground treatment
 When sub grade bed of soil cutting can not satisfy material and
strength requirements, replacement measures are usually adopted.
 Common measure for ground improvement
Replacement of bed course
Impact (vibration) rolling
Heavy tamping and heavy tamping replacement
Bagged sand well and plastic drainage board
Crushed rock pile
Sand compaction pile
Lime-soil (cement-soil) compaction pile
Pile trusted-expanded in column-hammer
Cement-soil mixing pile
Rotary jet grouting pile
CFG pile
Reinforced concrete pile net (pile raft) structure
Reinforced concrete pile board structure
 3. Drainage of roadbed
The subgrade should be designed with complete &
expedite drainage system
Effect of water
• Surface water: erode the roadbed which make the soil soft
• Ground water: increase the humidity of roadbed and
lowering the bearing force.
Principal sources of water to be considered:
 Rainfall directly on the track structure
 Surface water flowing toward and infiltrating the track
structure
 Water flowing within the track structure
 Ground water

Techniques used to reduce infiltration:

1. Sloping the upper surface of the sub grade and top
formation
2. Placement of clean ballast
3. Construction of cess drains below the bottom of the top
formation
4. Shaping embankment shoulders so that water flows away
from the track
 (2) Surface drainage of roadbed
1) arrangement of drainage ditch
① arrange it along the line;
② rail cant must ≮2‰;
③ the size should be able to avoid water from overflow;
④ when two different size ditches are connected, there
should be transition section;
⑤ for those special soil area, the ditch should use
measures which prevent leaking and scouring.
2) facilities
Embankment:

place: two sides of embankment;

function: drain off water around embankment;
drainage ditch
section: the same as side ditch.
used when the place cannot build a drainage ditch.

rectangular tank
 Through cut:

place: one side or two sides of the roadbed;

function: drain off water from the side slope;
side ditch
section: ladder-shaped, 0.4-0.6m deep and 0.4m
wide;
slope:2—8‰
place: edge of through cut;
gutter
function: intercept water flowing into through cut;
section: the same as side ditch.
slope:2—8‰
gutter
gutter

side ditch
side ditch

(a) side ditch (b)

gutter

(c) drainage ditch (d) rectangular

tank
(3) Ground drainage of roadbed
1) methods:- intercepting, dredging, lowering & sealing
2) facilities
① Open ditch and deep sink
function: drain off ground water;
place: along the line;
section: open ditch: ladder-shaped
deep sink: rectangular
a. open ditch b. deep sink
② slope sewer
Function:
drain off ground water of the side slope;
support the side slope and keep it steady.

③ water-intercepted sewer
Function:
•To intercept ground water;
• build in the roadbed.
④ sewer below side ditch
⑤ seeping hole
2. Safeguards and strengthening of roadbed
1. Safeguards of roadbed
Appropriate measures shall be selected for protection of side
slopes (cutting slopes and embankments) according to soil
property, lithology, hydrogeologic condition, ratio and height of
side slope, requirements for environment protection and soil &
water conservation.
In principle, measures shall be taken for protection of all slopes.
(1) Types
safeguards of side slope
safeguards of erosion
(2) Safeguards of side slope
1) plants
grass—for small gradient (1:1.25) and low height side slope;
turf—for big gradient and high height side slope;
trees—for small gradient side slope.
2) civil engineering works
(3) Safeguards of eroding
1) direct safeguards
turf;
stone;
dry stone and mortar;
floor slab slope;
retaining wall ;
gabion slope.
2) indirect safeguards
to guide the water flowing into another direction.
① vertical dam
② straight-forward dam
2.6.2 Strengthening of roadbed
(1)Types

(a) retaining wall (b) counterfort

(c) rubble (d) slagtrap

(2)Retaining wall
types of structure:
① gravity type
② cantilever type
③ counterfort type
④ anchored type
⑤ pile board type
⑥ rubble type
① gravity type
② cantilever type
③ counterfort type
④ anchored type
 2.7 Instability, sub grade work cases & Lessons

2.7.1 Instability
Instability results when the shear strength of the soil is not
sufficient to support the loads applied to it
The term landslide is used to define all types of mass
movement of soil or rock, where the mass moves down slope
under the influence of gravity only
Instability that affects the track can be classified according
to the impact that it has on the track.
1. A slide that encompasses a track and will disrupt
the track by cutting the alignment. Once the
track moves out of line, it is no longer
serviceable.
2. A landslide upslope where the toe crosses
the
track, burying it in under slide debris.
3. The track being heaved up in response to
upward movement of he toe of a landslide.
4. An event where a landslide threatens the
track, perhaps by encroaching on the down
slope shoulder.
5. Base failure in fills on soft foundations can
cause the fill to spread and settle. While this
may be mistaken as settlement, it is actually a
shear movement involving the foundation soils.
It is common on organic terrain and other soft
foundations.
6. How locations over old landslides may be
reactivated due to a change in stresses within the
landslide mass. Many of the ancient landslides are
extremely large, and the limits of the landslides
may be difficult to detect.
In general, the stability of a slope is dependent upon:
The shear strength of the soils.
Pore water pressure within the soils that make up
the slope (this can be roughly measured by knowing the
water table).
The geometry of the slope, particularly the slope
angle and changes of slope.
Any surcharge loading such as fill or bank widening
material stored on the slope or train loads.
Landslides occur either as a result of reduction in soil
strength or an increase in the loading on the slope.
Reductions in soil strength can occur as the result of:
 An increase in pore water pressure, reducing the
available shear strength of the soil.
In the case of moisture sensitive soils, the amount of
water needed to cause this
2.7.2 Sub grade Work Cases and Lessons

Lessons: Pay great attention to stability of

scope outside side slope designed for railway.
Lessons: Pay great attention to stability of works such as construction
roads adjacent to railways in soft soil area.
Lessons: Pay great attention to spoils
above road cutting and drainage
smooth.
Lessons: Pay great attention to stability of high fill in
sloping terrain (stratum) sections.
Lessons: Pay great attention to exploration and
rectification of karst subgrade.