Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering 26 (2015) 419e426

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Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering

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Basin and petroleum system modeling of the Cretaceous and Jurassic

source rocks of the gas and oil reservoirs in Darquain field, south west
Iran
Arsalan Zeinalzadeh a, Reza Moussavi-Harami a, *, Asadollah Mahboubi a,
Vali Ahmad Sajjadian b
a
Department of Geology, Faculty of Sciences, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran
b
Arvandan Oil and Gas Company, Tehran, Iran

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In south west Iran, in the Abadan Plain, there are several giant gas and oil reserves in Jurassic and
Received 11 March 2015 Cretaceous carbonates, such as Darquain, where there are excellent source rocks in the Early Cretaceous
Received in revised form and Jurassic successions. In present study, petroleum generation and migration from these source rocks
9 May 2015
were evaluated. Maturity state of organic matter was determined with Organic petrography and results
Accepted 26 May 2015
Available online xxx
were used for calibration of thermal model. Basin modeling was used for investigation of petroleum
generation and migration history. Burial history and 3D thermal model were constructed for the study
area using Temis suite and Genex software. Modeling shows source rocks of Jurassic, such as Sargelu and
Keywords:
Gas reservoirs
Neyriz are in gas maturity state, oil generation phase passed before Cenozoic. It appears that gas from
Oil reservoir Jurassic source rocks accumulated in Najmeh and did not reach to Cretaceous Fahliyan reservoir.
Basin modeling Cretaceous reservoir in Fahliyan Formation has been charged by the Garau Formation. This source rock
Petroleum systems reached to oil window in Early Cretaceous time and began hydrocarbon expulsion at the end of Creta-
Darquain field ceous when the Darquain structure formed. Migration paths of hydrocarbons shifted from NE to SW
direction about 11 Ma in response to changes in regional structural dip contemporary with the Zagros
Orogeny. Modeling results indicate that the quantity of gas and oil generated in the kitchen area was
more than the reservoirs' capacity. Therefore, the surplus hydrocarbon could have migrated laterally out
of reservoir area.
© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction act as a seal for the Fahliyan Formation. The goal of this study is to
investigate gas and oil generation and migration from source rocks
There are several giant hydrocarbon reservoirs in Abadan Plain, in Darquain structure by using basin modeling tools (1D, 2D and
south west Iran, in Jurassic and Cretaceous carbonates 3D) that can help in a better understanding the petroleum systems
(Saadatinejad and Sarkarinejad, 2011) (Fig. 1). The Darquain field is of the region. Organic petrography was used for calibration of
in central part of the Abadan Plain and contains excellent source model.
rocks such as the Early Cretaceous Garau and Middle Jurassic Sar-
gelu Formations (Zeinalzadeh et al., Under Review) (Fig. 2). Gas 2. Regional geology
reserve is present in the Jurassic Najmeh and Sargelu Formations,
while oil in the Cretaceous Fahliyan and Ilam Formations. The Abadan Plain is located in south west Iran and is surrounded
The Jurassic gas and Cretaceous oil reserves were separated by by the Dezful Embayment, Persian Gulf and IraneIraq boundary
thick evaporitic sediments of the Gotnia Formation that act as a seal (Fig. 1). It is a part of Mesopotamian Basin and its structural features
for underling gas reservoirs. Shally sequences of Gadvan Formation are different from the Dezful Embayment. The anticlines in the
Abadan Plain are NeS oriented that are different from usual
NWeSE trending structures in the Zagros. It is covered by recent
* Corresponding author. alluvial deposits with no outcrops (Saadatinejad and Sarkarinejad,
E-mail address: [email protected] (R. Moussavi-Harami). 2011). Abadan Plain source rocks are not well known and it is

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420 A. Zeinalzadeh et al. / Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering 26 (2015) 419e426

Fig. 1. Location map of the Darquain field and Darquain Well #2 (DQ-2) (Based on Abeed et al., 2012; Bordenave and Hegre, 2010).

Fig. 2. Stratigraphic column of Darquain Field (Data from unpublished geological completion report of Darquain wells, absolute age is based on Walker et al. (2013)).

thought that this area may have acted as a kitchen area for the high such as Southern Iraq and Kuwait (Bordenave and Hegre,
Cretaceous reservoirs of Kuwait (Derks et al., 2012; Murris, 1980). 2005).
Prior to the Zagros folding, in a scenario hydrocarbon could have The main source rock of the Dezful Embayment, Kazhdumi
migrated along low angle ramps from the study area toward paleo Formation, is extended into the study area as a good source;
 A. Zeinalzadeh et al. / Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering 26 (2015) 419e426 421

however, there are also excellent source rocks in Early Cretaceous (2002) was used to calculate the gas and oil generation of source
and Jurassic succession in this region (Garau and Najmeh/Sargelu rocks.
Formation respectively) (Zeinalzadeh et al., Under Review). Jurassic
petroleum source rocks, Najmeh and Sargelu Formations, are 3.2. Vitrinite reflectance measurements
composed of organic rich argillaceous limestone and shale. Also,
these formations are gas reservoirs with abnormal pressure up to Vitrinite reflectance (%Ro) is an optical parameter for describing
11,261 psi (Well completion report). The seal rock is evaporitic the degree of thermal maturity of sedimentary organic matter. It is
sediments (salt and anhydrite) of the Gotnia Formation (Fig. 2). measured in incident white light under a photometer microscope.
The oil reservoir of the Darquain is the Fahliyan Formation that There are standard procedures for vitrinite reflectance measure-
is composed mainly of Limestone and capped by shelly sequence of ments (Su arez-Ruiz et al., 2012a, 2012b; Taylor et al., 1998).
the Gadvan Formation (Fig. 2). The Late Cretaceous carbonate of In this study, 24 samples from source rock zones were selected
Ilam Formation is a minor oil reservoir and it is under development for vitrinite reflectance measurement based on organic richness
in Darquain. from Jurassic through Paleogene strata. Chips of rock samples
The Darquain anticline is a broad and gentle structure known as contain kerogen were set into epoxy resin blocks. After hardening,
dome or anticline. This structure has four closures in the Jurassic the samples were polished using abrasive papers, alumina pow-
and Cretaceous intervals but no closure is present in the shallower ders, diamond paste and lubricant. Vitrinite Reflectance measure-
Oligocene-Miocene stratigraphic intervals such as Asmari Forma- ments were undertaken using standard reflected light microscopy
tion. It has formed as a result of Cretaceous basement tectonic ac- (Lietz MPV-SP) at RIPI. The light reflected by organic matter in a
tivity and has been slightly reactivated during the Zagros Orogeny polished surface is measured under oil immersion (ne 1.518) by a
in Late Cenozoic (Abdollahie Fard et al., 2006; Sattarzadeh et al., photometer. Vitrinite Reflectance was used for maturity evaluation
1999; Soleimany and Sa bat, 2010). Also it could be related to salt of source rock samples, determination of Ro-depth trends and
pillowing along Hercynian faults which were reactivated during the calibration of calculated maturity in thermal modeling.
Mid Cretaceous time (Bordenave and Hegre, 2005).
There was no active tectonic movement in Abadan Plain 4. Source rock definition
(Soleimany and Sa bat, 2010) which led to significant erosion events
in Jurassic to recent layers. There was a passive margin setting There are several source rock zones in the Darquain field
during Mesozoic to Cenozoic time (Piryaei et al., 2011); that ended (Table 1 and Fig. 2). Excellent source zones are in the Najmeh (Late
to foredeep basin during Neogene time (Navabpour and Barrier, Jurassic) and upper part of Sargelu Formations with average TOC of
2012; Pirouz et al., 2011). Low erosion also reported in basin 6.5% at present time. Also, there are good source zones in the lower
modeling of Mesopotamian basin in south Iraq (Abeed et al., 2013; part of Sargelu and Neyriz (Early Jurassic) Formations. The lower
Pitman et al., 2004). In contrast, in Zagros fold-thrust belt, erosion part of the Garau Formation is an excellent source zone (Average
reached up to 1500 and 2000 m (Aldega et al., 2014; Bordenave and 4.2% TOC and 76 m thickness). The Albian Kazhdumi Formation is
Hegre, 2005; Pitman et al., 2004). another very good source zone (72 m with 2.4% TOC). For basin
modeling, initial TOCs in past geological time were calculated using
3. Methods and materials method of Peters et al. (2005), assuming an initial HI of 660 mg/g
TOC.
3.1. Basin modeling Kerogen type II was selected for Kazhdumi, Garau, Sargelu and
Neyriz source rocks as it determined by Zeinalzadeh et al. (Under
In this study, basin modeling software programs Temis suite and Review). Also, This kerogen type was used in other drill-sites
Genex, developed by French Institute of Petroleum (IFP), were used nearby such as South Iraq by Abeed et al. (2013), Dezful Embay-
for modeling and interpreting hydrocarbon generation, migration ment by Bordenave and Hegre (2010) and Kuwait (Derks et al.,
and accumulation histories. Burial histories of 29 wells were 2012).
reconstructed and two dimensional modeling of 4 geological sec-
tions were done. Three dimensional modeling is used in order to 5. Results
determine the kitchen areas of Darquain reservoirs and hydrocar-
bon leakage networks in the region. A 3D cube of the region was 5.1. Organic petrography
modeled to quantify hydrocarbon generation history of source
rocks. Five depth maps were constructed based on 2D and 3D Vitrinite reflectance values show organic maturity of samples
available seismic data. Five seismic depth maps and 29 wells data (Table 2) and the mean values increases gradually with depth, from
were used to construct depth maps of different horizons from 0.61 to 1.62% Ro. Based on reflectance data from Paleocene and Late
Jurassic to Recent successions. Maps of source rock characteristics Cretaceous succession, maturity stage of early oil generation was
are prepared according to geochemical analysis of Darquain Well obtained for Pabdeh, Ilam and Sarvak Formations (rages from 0.61
#2 (Zeinalzadeh et al., Under Review). to 0.64% Ro). Organic maturity of Kazhdumi source rock (Albian
Lithological information and geological ages of the strata were age) is 0.67e0.87% Ro which indicate this source rock is at the peak
extracted from well completion reports. Lithology of formations of oil generation window. End of oil generation maturity stage
does not show significant changes or clear trends over the area. (organic maturity about 1.04% Ro) was determined for the Early
Lithological maps were reconstructed from average lithology Cretaceous Garau source rock. Jurassic samples (include Sargelu
composition in wells (Fig. 2). Absolute ages were designated based source) are in mature stage of gas or end of oil generation and
on the geologic time scale of Walker et al. (2013). In this study, vitrinite reflectance values range from 1.04 to 1.62% Ro (Table 2).
geothermal gradient was assigned as 27  C/km according to well
completion reports of Darquain field and constant heat flow value 5.2. Burial history reconstruction and thermal modeling
was applied through geological time, which is well supported by
relative stability, gentle anticlines and absence of major faults in the Vitrinite reflectance data were used to calibrate thermal
Abadan Plain. The Easy %Ro kinetic model of vitrinite maturation modeling, and a good fit was obtained between modeling results
(Sweeney and Burnham, 1990) and kinetic data of Behar et al. and measured maturity data (Fig. 3). It was not necessary to assume
422 A. Zeinalzadeh et al. / Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering 26 (2015) 419e426

Table 1
Source rocks characteristics of Darquain field (Zeinalzadeh et al. (Under Review)).

Source rock Thickness (m) Initial TOC (wt.%) Max. of TOC (wt.%) Mean TOC (wt.%)

Kazhdumi 72 3 3.87 2.3

Lower Garau 55 7 14.30 4.2
Upper Sargelu 76 14 13.40 6.5
Neyriz 58 5 3.80 2.1

Table 2
Vitrinite reflectance data of the studied samples.

Formation Depth (m) Mean Ro% Maximum Ro% Minimum Ro% Standard deviation Variance Number of measurements

Pabdeh 2224 0.61 0.75 0.51 0.07 0.005 10

Ilam 2766 0.59 0.59 0.59 1
Sarvak 2778 0.64 0.94 0.45 0.16 0.025 8
Kazhdumi 3422 0.69 0.81 0.53 0.09 0.008 10
Kazhdumi 3430 0.67 0.99 0.52 0.21 0.043 6
Kazhdumi 3436 0.71 0.87 0.58 0.09 0.008 10
Kazhdumi 3440 0.76 0.97 0.51 0.17 0.028 10
Kazhdumi 3444 0.81 1.03 0.56 0.16 0.027 10
Kazhdumi 3450 0.77 0.99 0.55 0.13 0.017 17
Kazhdumi 3458 0.79 0.91 0.64 0.12 0.014 4
Kazhdumi 3460 0.82 0.97 0.63 0.14 0.021 4
Kazhdumi 3470 0.80 1.10 0.65 0.10 0.011 16
Kazhdumi 3474 0.87 0.99 0.67 0.13 0.018 6
Garau 4920 1.02 1.25 0.81 0.13 0.017 15
Garau 4930 1.07 1.26 0.88 0.13 0.018 17
Gotnia 4940 1.24 1.24 1.23 0.01 0.000 2
Gotnia 5100 1.11 1.40 1.00 0.12 0.015 10
Gotnia 5140 1.14 1.38 0.86 0.18 0.033 8
Sargelu 5170 1.14 1.29 0.89 0.14 0.021 11
Sargelu 5175 1.04 1.44 0.82 0.15 0.024 13
Sargelu 5180 1.62 1.74 1.41 0.13 0.017 10
Sargelu 5190 1.04 1.49 0.70 0.25 0.061 11
Sargelu 5195 1.19 1.46 0.87 0.17 0.030 10
Mus 5400 1.22 1.61 0.98 0.20 0.042 7

erosion or high heat flow events in thermal modeling, because

measured temperature data and present day burial depth are suf-
ficient to reach maturity of organic matter to vitrinite reflectance
data. There have been several non-depositional events in this re-
gion, and computed and measured Ro-depth trends indicate
erosion thicknesses were less than 100 m.
The intervals are in deepest burial and maximum temperature
at present time as seen in southern Mesopotamian Basin (Abeed
et al., 2013). Source rocks temperatures are in a range between
131 (in Kazhdumi) and 177  C (in Neyriz), and 160 and 170  C in
Garau and Sargelu, respectively. The deepest Jurassic Sargelu and
Neyriz source rocks were in oil generation window in Early Creta-
ceous time (about 130 Ma) when they reached to the depth of 3.4
and 3.7 km respectively (Figs. 4 and 5). Main oil expulsions from the
Jurassic sources occurred during Late Cretaceous time. They have
been in gas generation and expulsion from Oligocene to recent
(Fig. 6). At present, maturity of Sargelu and Neyriz formations are
more than 1.3% Ro at the depths of 5.2 and 5.6 km respectively
(Figs. 4 and 5); therefore they are at the stage of gas generation and
expulsion as stated above.
Garau reached to the oil window in Early Cretaceous time (about
110 Ma) and the hydrocarbon expulsion occurred from Late
Cretaceous (95 Ma) up to Oligocene time. It seems that this interval
is at the end of oil generation and onset of the gas stage (maturity
about 1.2% Ro and 4.75 km burial depth) in Darquain Well #2
(Figs. 5 and 6). The Early Cretaceous Kazhdumi source rock reached
to oil window generation (maturity about 0.5% Ro) from Paleocene
(Fig. 5). Kazhdumi hydrocarbon expulsion has occurred from
Fig. 3. Maturity profiles of modeling and vitrinite measurements. Miocene time (20 Ma) (Fig. 6).
 A. Zeinalzadeh et al. / Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering 26 (2015) 419e426 423

Fig. 4. Burial history of Well Darquain well #2.

Two and three dimensional basin modeling of Darquain anti- (Agha Jari and Gachsaran Formations) over the kitchen area, Source
cline show that the quantity of the hydrocarbon originated from rocks are in more advanced stages of hydrocarbon generation in
Garau and Sargelu source rocks exceeded the capacity of Early deeper settings than shallower part of anticline.
Cretaceous (Fahliyan) and Jurassic (Najmeh) reservoirs, respec- Regional flow patterns of hydrocarbon in Najmeh and Fahliyan
tively. After traps were filled, excess hydrocarbon migrated laterally Formations were toward the N and NE in about 16.2 Ma (Figs. 8a
out of the kitchen area through reservoirs spill points (Fig. 7). Hy- and Fig. 9a). Migration paths in region shifted toward SW from
drocarbon kitchen areas of Darquain reservoirs extended toward about 11 Ma, as a result of the deposition of the thick Neogene
NE where source rocks were buried 900 m deeper than Darquain sediment in the NE of the kitchen area and changes in the regio'nal
anticline. Because of thickness variation of Neogene sediments structural dip (Figs. 8b and 9b). This pattern of migration is
consistent with hydrocarbon flow in Mesopotamian Basin of Iraq
(Pitman et al., 2004).

6. Discussion

The constructed burial history of wells drilled in Darquain

anticline indicate high rate of carbonate sedimentation during
deposition of the Fahliyan Formation for a short period of time from
134.8 to 131 Ma resulted in faster maturation of the underling
source rocks (Figs. 4 and 5). Bordenave and Hegre (2005) have
addressed similar issues, high rate of carbonate sedimentation
occurred during deposition of Sarvak Formation from 100 to 90 Ma
prior to pre Maastrichtian orogenic phase In the Dezful Embay-
ment. High rate of sedimentation could be related to crustal thin-
ning and rifting, which associated with high paleo heat flow (Baur
et al., 2010) that could causes higher maturity of source rocks.
While measured maturity of strata bellower Fahliyan Formation is
Fig. 5. Source rocks maturity history in Darquain well #2 (* higher rate of maturation). slightly less than calculated maturity, by considering constant heat
424 A. Zeinalzadeh et al. / Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering 26 (2015) 419e426

during Neogene time (Agha Jari and Gachsaran Formations)

contemporary with the Zagros Orogeny. Neogene sediments had a
significant impact on hydrocarbon generation of Kazhdumi For-
mation in NE of kitchen area where quantity of Kazhdumi hydro-
carbon expulsion is two times more than anticline setting. While
Garau and older source rocks passed peak of oil generation a long
time before Neogene, Kazhdumi source is at end of oil generation
peak in deepest part in the NE, and it is at oil generation peak in
Darquain anticline.
Among source rock intervals in the study area, the Sargelu and
Garau Formations are the main sources of the Jurassic and Creta-
ceous petroleum systems which are separated by Gotnia Forma-
tion. Geochemical results from the Sargelu and Garau source rocks
in the Zagros Basin have shown close similarities and have not been
found obvious differences in carbon isotope and biomarker be-
tween these two units (Ashkan, 2004). Similar situation is present
in the Jurassic (Najmeh eSargelu) and Cretaceous (Sulaiy) source
rocks in Kuwait (Abdullah and Connan, 2002; Kaufman et al., 2002).
Gotnia Formation consists of about 84 m of salt layers and the same
thickness of anhydrite. Ductile behavior of Gotnia keeps over-
pressure under this layer in the Darquain field as well as in some
parts of the Kuwait and Iraq (Abeed et al., 2013; Ali, 1994) and it is
unfaulted seal in southern Mesopotamian Basin (Abeed et al.,
2013). While Fahliyan reservoir contains mainly liquid phase,
there are gas and condensate reservoirs underling the Gotnia For-
mation. So the Gotnia seal probably prevented migration of gas
from underling toward upper reservoirs.
Hydrocarbon expulsion from Sargelu and Garau sources and
traps formation occurred contemporaneously, during the Late
Fig. 6. Source rocks hydrocarbon expulsion history in Well Darquain #2. Cretaceous time (Fig. 10). It seems that first Najmeh Formation is
fed by liquid hydrocarbon then oil replaced by gas during the
Cenozoic. In both Jurassic and Cretaceous petroleum systems,
flow. In other words, measured vitrinite reflectance does not sup- reserve overlay source rock and expelled hydrocarbons from source
port high heat flow during deposition of Fahliyan Formation and rocks migrated upward into younger reservoir layers. Jurassic gas
high sedimentation rate is not related to crustal thinning and rift- reserve is limited above and below by thick evaporitic layers,
ing. It could be related to instability of Arabian Platform. Although Gotnia and Neyriz- Alan Formations, respectively. As basin
considering constant heat flow through geologic time is known as modeling shows, lateral migration through Najmeh has been
oversimplification, but in several modeling studies in the region occurred toward SW but this reservoir has only 17 m thickness and
appropriate fit between modeling results and geochemistry pa- high pore pressure so it is an isolated interval. Some parts of the oil
rameters with constant heat flow were obtained (Abeed et al., generated inside Sargelu could be cracked in situ into pyro bitumen
2013; Bordenave and Hegre, 2005; Opera et al., 2013; Rudkiewicz and gas as reported in some parts of Zagros region (Bordenave and
et al., 2007). Hegre, 2010).
In NE of kitchen area there was high rate of sedimentation Fahliyan reserve is limited above by Gadvan shale and below by

Fig. 7. Migration paths in two-dimensional section (see Fig. 8b for location of section). Expelled hydrocarbons migrated vertically to reservoir rocks and lateral migration occurs
through reservoirs.
 A. Zeinalzadeh et al. / Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering 26 (2015) 419e426 425

Fig. 8. Modeled Cretaceous (top Fahliyan) kitchen area in Darquain and adjacent area at time periods: (a) 16.2 Ma and (b) Present time. Kitchen area (red line), leakage routes (blue
line), reservoir area (Black line) and spill point were shown in maps. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of
this article.)

Fig. 9. Modeled Jurassic (top Najmeh) kitchen area in Darquain and adjacent area at time periods: (a) 16.2 Ma and (b) Present time. Kitchen area (red line), leakage routes (blue line),
reservoir area (Black line) and spill point were shown in maps. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this
article.)

evaporitic sediments of the Gotnia that prevent downward charged Jurassic Najmeh/Sargelu Gas reservoirs in the Darquain
migration of hydrocarbon. Basin modeling shows lateral migration anticline. Cretaceous petroleum system has been charged by the
through Fahliyan reservoir (about 400 m thickens) toward anticline Early Cretaceous Garau source rock which it was in hydrocarbon
and after filling the tarp, migration was toward west (Fig. 7). expulsion at the end of Cretaceous time when trap structure
Hydrocarbon expelled from Kazhdumi source rock could formed and charged the Fahliyan reservoir. The Garau source is at
migrated directly into the Ilam Formation in above. Ilam is minor the beginning of gas expulsion and end of oil expulsion. The
reservoir may be due to lack of suitable closure. Toward Kuwait and Kazhdumi hydrocarbon expulsion has occurred from Miocene and
south Iraq, Kazhdumi facies change to porous sandstone and it is in it is at the peak of oil generation at present time and hydrocarbon
shallower depth. Hydrocarbon migration paths were obtained from could migrate directly from this source into the Ilam Formation.
basin modeling support lateral migration toward SW through Jurassic gas and Cretaceous oil reservoirs were directly charged
Kazhdumi sandy sublayers. by source rocks in theirs kitchen area. The gas from Jurassic source
rocks accumulated in Najmeh and did not reach to Cretaceous
7. Conclusions Fahliyan reservoir. It seems Gotnia Formation separated the Jurassic
reservoirs from Cretaceous reservoirs. Hydrocarbon migrated
Source rocks of the Jurassic petroleum system, Sargelu and laterally through reservoirs toward anticline and after trap filled
Neyriz Formations, are in gas generation window and they passed hydrocarbon overflow migrated out of the kitchen area. Thick de-
main oil generation phase prior to Cenozoic. These source rocks posits of the Neogene sediments in the NE of the kitchen area and
426 A. Zeinalzadeh et al. / Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering 26 (2015) 419e426

Fig. 10. Events chart of Cretaceous and Jurassic petroleum systems.

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