nies TIES ee Revision : Propositional Logic, Propositional Equivalences Rules of Inference: Argument in propositional Logic, Validity Argument (Direct and Indirect methods) Rules of Inference for Propositional Logic, Building Arguments. Predicates and Quantifiers : Predicate, n-Place Predicate or, n-ary Predicate, Quantification and Quantifiers, Universal Quantifier, Existential Quantifier, Quantifiers with restricted domains, Logical Equivalences involving Quantifiers. Introduction : In this chapter we use philosophical rules to prove mathematical results. We define Logic as a science to learn various methods of proof, to construct arguments and test their validity. 1.1 Proposition (Statement) : Definition : A declarative sentence which is either true or false but not both at the same time is called proposition or statement. It is denoted as: p, 4,1, .. Examples : 1) 1is first natural number. (true proposition ) 2) Mumbai is capital of Maharashtra (true proposition ) 3) 3t=6 (false proposition) 4) Sachin Tendulkar is table tennis player. (false proposition) 5) Perhaps I will be President of India. (not a proposition) —_ (Since it is not declarative) 6) Animals are wild (not a proposition) (Since it is not declarative) 1.2 Logical Connectives : Definition : Connectives of two or more propositions are called as logical connectives e.g. AND, OR, BUT, WHILE, NOT, IF..... THEN, IF AND ONLY IF.WH _biscrete Mathematics (SPPU - BSc (comp) 1 1.2.1 Negation (~) : . If p is statement, then negation of p is ‘NOT p’. © Also we get negation of statement p by reconnecting ‘it is not ease that’ to statement P- © Notation : ~p or —por p. © By definition “~p’ is true only when p is false and vice versa. © Truth table for ~p: P -P T F F ar Examples : 1) p: Today is holiday. ~ p: Today is not holiday. 2) +p: Mathematics is easy. ‘Then, ~ p : Mathematics is not easy OR ~ p It is not case that Mathematics is easy. 1.2.2 Conjunction [AND] : Definition : «Ip andq are two statements then compound statement ‘p and q's called the conjunction of panda. + Notation: pa q- By definition, p » qis true only when both p and q are true, p »q is false in all other cases. «Truth table: Pia|paq T)T|. T TPE FT) F FIF| F Examples : 1) pi ltis raining. q: Weather is cold. pq: ltis raining and weather is cold. 2) p+ Pushkar is clever. q: Pushkar is not hard-worker. pq: Pushkar is clever and he is not hard-worker.WF _ Discrete Mathematics (SPP BSc (comp) 1.2.3. Disjunction [OR] : Definition : + Truth table Pja|pva TI\t| 7% T PST FiT| T F/F| F Examples : 1) p: Team A will win. 2) 1.2.4 Conditional Statement (IF Logic Ifp and q are two statements then the compound statement ‘p or q' is called disjunction of p and q. Notation : pv q By definition p v q is false only when both p and q are false and p v q is true in all other cases. q: Team B will win. P vq: Team A will win or team B will win, p: Two lines are parallel. 4: Two lines intersects each other. PV q: Two lines are parallel or intersects each other. Definition : Ifp and q are two statenients then the compound statement ‘f p then q and q. Notation : pq By definition p ~ q is false only when p is true and q is false, and it is true in all other cases, D .. THEN) : ‘Truth table : Pja|pra iT) on TP SeF Fit | T F/F| T Remarks : Equivalent forms of conditional statement p — q Ifp then q ponly ifq 2) 3) 4) Sufficient condition for q is that p i.e. p is sufficient for q. Necessary condition for p is q ie. q is necessary for p. called conditional statement of p We etanease¥ Examples v 2) 3) 1. Ex. Tiel Odes ee) eae ee ee ee eT ie | ial Te P + India elects batting first. 4: India will win the match. P44: If India elects batting first then India will win the match. p:Thave money. a: I purchase car. Pa: IfI have money then I will purchase car. Pi We enjoy cricket. ‘a: There is match between India and Pakistan. Pa: We enjoy cricket only if there is match between India and Pakistan. 2.5 Converse, Inverse, Contrapositive : Converse ofp qia—p a Inverse of pa: ~p>~a E Contrapositive of pa : -a>~p s 1.2.4: Consider the following conditional statement “It you are good in logic then you are good in programming ee P q Soin. : © Converse : If you are good in programming then you are good in logic. : , Ail ci Son c q P . + Inverse : Ifyou are not good in logic then you are not good in programming. OTTO OO : =p “4 . «© Contrapositive : Ifyou are not good in programming then you are not good in logic Zu 122: Slate converse, inverse and contrapositve of following statements, : () __ Ifitrains, then | carry an Umbrella. (i) fam not President of India then | will walk to work, Rua EE Soin. : a If it rains, then I carry an Umbrella. Let p: Itrains. q: I carry an umbrella. : Given Statement is: p> 4 Converse: 4 P jie. IfTearry an Umbrella, then it rains Inverse: ~ Pp ~4 ce. It is does not rain then I do not carry an ‘Umbrella. Contrapositive: ~4 > ~ P jie. If I do not carry an Umbrella, then it does not rain. 7 = eaeWF _iscrete Mathematics (SPPU - B.Sc (comp) 1s Logie Gi) IfT am not President of India then I will walk to work. Let p:T.am president of India. q:: I will walk to work Given conditional statement is :~ pq Converse q+ ~p i.e. IfT walk to work, then I am not the President of India, Inverse : ~(~ p)>~4 iepo~a i.e. IfT am President of India, then I will not walk to work. Contrapositive: ~ q ~ (~ p) ie~q-P ile. If I do not waik to work, then I am President of India, Find contrapositive of "If | study then I pass” Soin. : S = Istudy, P = [pass Symbolic form: 8 > P Contrapositive of it is ~ P > ~S. i.e. If fail then I not studied. 1.2.6 Biconditional Statement (IF AND ONLY IF) : Definitio © If p and q are two statements then the compound statement ‘p if and only if q’ is called a bi-conditional statement. © Notation :pog © By definition ‘p if and only if q’ is true when both p and q are true or both p and q are false and it is false in all other cases. Truth table plajped Dia T|Fl F [F|T| F F[F[ T Examples : (1) p:An integer is even. qi It is divisible by 2. p ©: An integer is even if and only if it is divisible by 2 (2) ps Twolines are parallel. They have same slopes. P44: Two lines are parallel if and only if they have same slopes.bog SF _Discrete Mathematics (SPPU - B.Sc comp.) es & discrete Mathematics GPPU-BSe(comp)) 6g Ext Prepare truth table for (p +) «> (~~ p)- Soln. : p|a|/p>a|~a|~p|-a>~p| Pde Ca>~P) Tit] rT [Fir T T tle] pe {etflel| oF T Fit] r [rit T Tr Fle] tofr|[7 T T Ex. 1.2.5: Prepare truth table for (p —q) a (q— 1) > (p ‘Soin. : Piate{eoa aor] easy | por |@san@rn+@ 59 tts Tt i T r Tr Tier © F F Ra a TIFT F T F . T TIF/F| F T F F T F[r|t] 2 T 1: i. T FiT|F T F F T T F/F/T T = T 7 , FU/FIF T 7 T T | T Ex 126: Trot he lotanbs salts tang Wan Be Dae aap Soin. Pia [T/T T|F [F/T Fei Here all entries in column of pq and_biscrete Mathematics (SPPU-~ B Se (comp) Logic Ex. 1.2.7: Consider, p : Prakash is obedient. 4 : Prakash is handsome. Write the following statements in symbolic form, (Prakash is obedient but not handsome. (i) Prakash is obedient as well as handsome Gi) Prakash is neither obedient nor handsome. Soin. : (i) Prakash is obedient but not handsome. Pana Gi) Prakash is obedient as well as handsome paq (ii) Prakash is neither obedient nor handsome. =pa-a_ or -@vq Ex. 1.2.8: Let p: tis raining q Itis cold. Translate following into symbolic form ® =p i) pve (i) pag @) av-p WM ~pra-a WW) ~ea) Soin. : (i) It is not raining (i) It is raining or cold. ii) It is raining and cold. (iv) Ttis cold or it is not raining, (v) It is neither raining nor cold. (vi) It is not a case that it is not cold. Ex. 1.2.9: Write the logical negation of following statement in symbolic form. ‘Indians are intelligent and obedient.’ Soin. : Let _ p: Indians are Intelligent. q: Indians are obedient. Prepositional form of statement is p 4. . Negation of ps q is ~ (pq) ie.~pv~q Ex. 1.2.10: Let p= Food is good. = The service is good. += The rating is 8 star Convert the following statement into symbolic form. (2) Either the food is good or service is good but not bat, (©) Either the food is good or service is good or both, (©) _Itis not the case that both the food is good and rating is 3 star (a) If both food and service are good, then rating will be 3 star, SE Wy leakaosieageDiscrete Mathematics (SPPU - B.Sc (comp) as Soin. : (a) (Pyq@a(prq)). ) pva. © ~@an. @ (agar Ex. 1.2.11 : Translate the following into symbole from: (0. 11do not work hard cniy if am awake and | do not dream of home. REECE (ii) It will rain tomorrow or it will snow tomorrow. Soln. : W = Iwork hard Tam awake D = Idream of home It will rain tomorrow Tt will snow tomorrow aa ou @ -~W>(Aa~-D) Gi) Rvs. Ex. 1.2.12 : Translate the following into symbolic form. (1) Some horses run faster than some cars. (2) All integers are rationals. Solin. : @ H © some horses run faster. C = cars run faster. Notation 3 xe H (xis faster than C). (2) I = xis integer R = xis rational. xeIR). .es corresponding to the following statement. : Write English sentencs Wi) = rv) @ (Padre Ex. 1.2.4 Soin. : i (~pagrr Let _ p: study discrete mathematics. q:1g0 toa movie. r; I am in a good mood. ence is : If I do not study discrete mathematic ii) & ey > ee ties and I go to a movie, then I am in a good mood, Let p: Iwill study discrete mathematics. q: Iwill go to a movie 1: Tam in a good mood + Statement: IfT am in a good mood then T will study diserete mathematies or I will goto a movie wienW_iscrete Mathematics (SPPU - B.Sc (comp. Logic Ex. 1.2.14 : John either always tells the truth or he always lies. He made statements (@ Hove Lucy. (i IF Jove Lucy, then | also love Vivian, Determine whether John really love Lucy, Sees Soln. : Let p = John love Lucy @ = John love Vivian Statements given becomes @ Pp @ prq ‘Truth table of above two statements becomes Sr.No. | p|a|p >a G_TtI[t] T) | casei 2 |T|F| F aeeaie | Tt) ST 4. BLE ® If John tells truth, Case We require p is true and p — q also true such case exist only at sr. no. 1 of truth table. In this case p is true that is John love Lucy. Case I: If John always lies. We require p is false and p — q is false but such case does not exist in table - by Case 1 Jobn realy love Lucy. 1.3 Propositional Form (Statement Form) : Definition : + An expression constructed from logical variables p,, p,, called a propositional form. + Notation : P(p1, Pas Pay «+--+ Pa) , p, and the logical connectives a, v, ~, , © is [Note : Propositional form has no fixed truth value. Examples : @®) ~(pva)>p Gi) Pq) o(—r~a Gi) (Pog [Poga-P>~) Gv) (pvg) @ [av ep} We rarnenteags1.3.1 Tautology : Definition : it’ iti les is called tautol * _ Astatement which is always true for all possible values of it's propositional variables eg, * _Itis denoted by 7, truth table, Ex. 1.3.1: (p aq) — p, test for tautology. Soin; We prepare truth table of (p ».q) ~ pas follows : Last column contains all T's. (PA) pis tautology. P| 4|paa| adv t\r| 7 T TIF| F T FiT| F T Flr| F T Ex. 1.3.2: Test for tautology ((p 4 q) > F] > [p> (G0) Soln. : We prepare truth table of (pq) +r] > [p> (q > n)] as follows: Le. A propositional form Pip, pa, psy... Pa) is a tautology if it contains only ‘T’ in the last column of P}a|R/Ppaqd/ @a@sr|qsr|psqorn Ipagors b> @>n) tit|t] 3 T T T a T|T|F] T F F F 7? TIFIT] F T T T T TIFI/F] F T T 7 : F(t|T| F i, T T iB FIT|F F T F T T FIF|T| F By T T = F/F/F] F T T T ; Here last column contains all T's 2. [ipaq 11 > [p> Dis Tautology.BF _Discrete Mathernatics (SPPU Sc (comp, 1 Logic 1 Ex. 1.3.3: Determine if the following propositions are tautology. Justify your answer. @) (-qa(p 39) >~p () (Pva)a~p)>4q Soin. : (2) Truth table of (qa (p + q)) > ~ p becomes ® ®@ 09@ plal-a]p 3a |-an@>@ | -P | Resuit T/T) Pr F F< 7 TlF| Tv] F F Fier F[t| Fl Tt F 1 |e FlF| Tt] 7 v m pial T Result column contains all T hence it is tautology. (b) Truth table of ((p v q) ~ p) > q becomes ® ® 0>@ P|q |Pva/~P| pvaa-p | Result tTi|T| T I/F F T mr or |e F iP PEP | 2 4 ® ? f FIF/ FT F T Result column contains all T hence it is tautology. Ex. 1.3.4: Test validity of an argument by truth table, a> ~b,b,~csabhc Soln. : We know a ~b, b, ~ > a+ cis valid argument if and only if (a> ~b) ba(~c—>a)] ~ cis tautology. 1j2}s| 4 5 6 7 8 838 a}lb}ec|~b]/a+~b]~e]~-c a (a>-b) aba(-c>a)| 833 T|T/T)| F F F r, F iv: TIT/F| F F T 1 F i. £,| Bl T lel 7 F bi E 2 TIFIF|T T ey F T F/T|T| F 7 F T T 1, TeailnonledgeWF _ discrete Mathematics (SPPU - B.Sc (comp 5 833 1/2/38] 4 5 6 7 T Fir{Fl Fr] .r [tl F E c F/F/T| T iP) zi is zi f. F/F/F| Tv Wy. 4s (7 oF F Here all entries in last column (8 > 3) are T's. ~. It is tautology. . a>~b,b,~c ab cis valid argument. 1.3.2. Contradiction : Definition : contradiction. ie. A proportional form P(pi, Ps, Ps, truth table. ¢ _ Itis denoted by F. A statement which is always false for all possibl le truth values of it’s propositional variable is called . pa) is a contradiction if it contains only ‘F’ in the last column of} Example : Test for Contradiction, (p 4) A ~ (pv @)- P| a|Paa|pva|~@yva@ | Pra@a~@va Tor. | F F Ther | oT F F F/O) oF -| ot F F Fi/F] F | F T F Last column contain all F's. =. (pag A~ (PY qis contradictions. Ex. 1.3.5: Verify for tautology or contradiction : (p 0 q) a ~ (p v q) Soln. : pla|paq|pva|~(vq@ | @aga~@va) DL [eee F F DUP [2 Pos) 7 F F #2) oF F F PEP |) Bose 2, F Last column contains all F's Hence (pq) A~ (pv 4) is contradiction.