Waves

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 Progressive Waves
Waves
All waves are caused by oscillations and all transfer energy without transferring matter. This means that a water
wave can transfer energy to you sitting on the shore without the water particles far out to sea moving to the
beach.
Here is a diagram of a wave; it is one type of wave called a
transverse wave. A wave consists of something (usually
particles) oscillating from an equilibrium point. The wave
can be described as progressive; this means it is moving
outwards from the source.
We will now look at some basic measurements and characteristics or waves.

Amplitude, A Amplitude is measured in metres, m

The amplitude of a wave is the maximum displacement of the particles from the equilibrium position.
Wavelength, λ Wavelength is measured in metres, m
The wavelength of a wave is the length of one whole cycle. It can be measured between two adjacent peaks,
troughs or any point on a wave and the same point one wave later.
Time Period, T Time Period is measured in seconds, s
This is simply the time is takes for one complete wave to happen. Like wavelength it can be measured as the time
it takes between two adjacent peaks, troughs or to get back to the same point on the wave.
Frequency, f Frequency is measured in Hertz, Hz
Frequency is a measure of how often something happens, in this case how many complete waves occur in every
1 1
T= f=
second. It is linked to time period of the wave by the following equations: f
and T
Wave Speed, c Wave Speed is measured in metres per second, m s-1
The speed of a wave can be calculated using the following equations: c=fλ
Here c represents the speed of the wave, f the frequency and λ the wavelength.
Phase Difference Phase Difference is measured in
radians, rad
If we look at two particles a wavelength apart (such as C and G) we would see that they are oscillating in time
with each other. We say that they are completely in phase. Two points half a wavelength apart (such as I and K)
we would see that they are always moving in opposite directions. We say that they are completely out of phase.
The phase difference between two points depends on what fraction of a wavelength lies between them

B C D E F G H I J K L M
Phase Difference
½π 1π 1½π 2π 2½π 3π 3½π 4π 4½π 5π 5½π 6π
from A (radians)
Phase Difference
90 180 270 360 450 540 630 720 810 900 990 1080
from A (degrees)
Path Difference Path Difference is measured in wavelengths,
λ
If two light waves leave a bulb and hit a screen the difference in how far the waves have travelled is called the
path difference. Path difference is measured in terms of wavelengths.
B C D E F G H I J K L M
Path Difference
¼λ ½λ ¾λ 1λ 1¼λ 1½λ 1¾λ 2λ 2¼λ 2½λ 2¾λ 3λ
from A
So two waves leaving A with one making it to F and the other to J will have a path difference of 1 wavelength (1λ).
 Longitudinal and transverse waves
Waves
All waves are caused by oscillations and all transfer energy without transferring matter. This means that a sound
wave can transfer energy to your eardrum from a far speaker without the air particles by the speaker moving into
your ear. We will now look at the two types of waves and how they are different

Longitudinal Waves
Here is a longitudinal wave; the oscillations are parallel to the direction of propagation (travel).
Where the particles are close together we call a compression and where they are spread we call a rarefaction.
The wavelength is the distance from one compression or rarefaction to the next.
The amplitude is the maximum distance the particle moves from its equilibrium position to the right of left.

Example:
sound waves
Transverse Waves
Here is a transverse wave; the oscillations are perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
Where the particles are displaced above the equilibrium position we call a peak and below we call a trough.
The wavelength is the distance from one peak or trough to the next.
The amplitude is the maximum distance the particle moves from its equilibrium position up or down.

Examples
: water
waves,
waves of
the EM
spectrum
EM waves are produced from varying electric and magnetic field.

Polarisation
Polarisation restricts the oscillations of a wave to one plane. In the diagrams the light is initially oscillating in all
directions. A piece of Polaroid only allows light to oscillate in the
same direction as it.
 In the top diagram the light passes through a vertical plane
Polaroid and becomes polarized in the vertical plane. This can
then pass through the second vertical Polaroid.
 In the middle diagram the light becomes polarized in the
horizontal plane.
 In the bottom diagram the light becomes vertically polarized but
this cannot pass through a horizontal plane Polaroid.
This is proof that the waves of the EM spectrum are transverse waves.
If they were longitudinal waves the forwards and backwards motion
would not be stopped by crossed pieces of Polaroid; the bottom set up
would emit light.
Applications
TV aerials get the best reception when they point to the transmission source so they absorb the maximum amount
of the radio waves.

Superposition and standing waves

Superposition
Here are two waves that have amplitudes of 1.0 travelling in opposite directions:

Superposition is the process by which two waves combine into a single wave form when they overlap.
If we add these waves together the resultant depends on where the peaks of the waves are compared to each
other. Here are three examples of what the resultant could be: a wave with an amplitude of 1.5, no resultant wave
at all and a wave with an amplitude of 2.0

Stationary/Standing Waves
When two similar waves travel in opposite directions they can
superpose to form a standing (or stationary) wave. Here is the
experimental set up of how we can form a standing wave on a
string. The vibration generator sends waves down the string at a
certain frequency, they reach the end of the string and reflect back
at the same frequency. On their way back the two waves travelling
in opposite direction superpose to form a standing wave made up
of nodes and antinodes.
Nodes Positions on a standing wave which do not vibrate. The
waves combine to give zero displacement
Antinodes Positions on a standing wave where there is a maximum
displacement.

Standing Waves Progressive Waves

Amplitude Maximum at antinode and zero at nodes The same for all parts of the wave
Frequency All parts of the wave have the same frequency All parts of the wave have the same frequency
Wavelength Twice the distance between adjacent nodes The distance between two adjacent peaks
Phase All points between two adjacent nodes in phase Points one wavelength apart in phase
Energy No energy translation Energy translation in the direction of the wave
Waveform Does not move forward Moves forwards

Harmonics
As we increase the frequency of the vibration generator we will see standing
waves being set up. The first will occur when the generator is vibrating at the
fundamental frequency, f0, of the string.
First Harmonic f = f0 λ=2L
2 nodes and 1 antinode
Second Harmonic f = 2f0 λ=L
3 nodes and 2 antinodes
Third Harmonic f = 3f0 λ=⅔L
4 nodes and 3 antinodes
Forth Harmonic f = 4f0 λ=½L
5 nodes and 4 antinodes
Superposition

Refraction
Refractive Index
The refractive index of a material is a measure of how easy it is for light to travel through it. The refractive index
of material s can be calculated using:
c
n=
cs
where n is the refractive index, c is the speed of light in a vacuum and cs is the speed of light in material s.
Refractive Index, n, has no units
c c
n=
If light can travel at c in material x then the refractive index is:
c x  n= c  n=1
c
c n=
n= c
If light can travel at c/2 in material y then the refractive index is:
cy  2  n=2
The higher the refractive index the slower light can travel through it
The higher the refractive index the denser the material
Bending Light
When light passes from one material to another it is not only the speed of the
light that changes, the direction can change too.
If the ray of light is incident at 90° to the material then there is no change in
direction, only speed.
It may help to imagine the front of the ray of light as the front of a car to determine the direction the light will
bend. Imagine a lower refractive index as grass and a higher refractive index at mud.
Entering a Denser Material
The car travels on grass until tyre A reaches the mud. It is harder to move through
mud so A slows down but B can keep moving at the same speed as before. The car
now points in a new direction.
Denser material – higher refractive index – bends towards the Normal
Entering a Less Dense Material
The car travels in mud until tyre A reaches the grass. It is easier to move across grass
so A can speed up but B keeps moving at the same speed as before. The car now
points in a new direction.
Less dense material – lower refractive index – bends away from the Normal
Relative Refractive Index
Whenever two materials touch the boundary between them will have a refractive
index dependent on the refractive indices of the two materials. We call this the
relative refractive index.
When light travels from material 1 to material 2 we can calculate the relative
refractive index of the boundary using any of the following:
n2 c 1 sin θ1
1 n2 = = =
n1 c 2 sin θ2
 Total internal reflection
Total Internal Reflection
We know that whenever light travels from one material to another the majority of the light refracts but a small
proportion of the light also reflects off the boundary and stays in the first material.
When the incident ray strikes the boundary at an angle less than the critical angle the light refracts into the
second material.
When the incident ray strikes the boundary at an angle equal to the critical angle all the light is sent along the
boundary between the two materials.
When the incident ray strikes the boundary at an angle greater than the critical angle all the light is reflected and
none refracts, we say it is total internal reflection has occurred.

Critical Angle
We can derive an equation that connects the critical angle with the refractive indices of the materials.
sin θ1 n2 sin θ1 n2
= =
sin θ2 n1 but at the critical angle θ2 is equal to 90° which makes sinθ2 = 1  1 n1
n2
sin θC =
θ1 is the critical angle which we represent as θC making the equation: n1
1 1
sin θC = n1 =
When the second material is air n2 = 1, so the equation becomes:
n1 or sin θC
Optical Fibres/Fibre Optics
An optical fibre is a thin piece of flexible glass. Light can travel
down it due to total internal reflection. Thier uses include:
 Communication such as phone and TV signals: they can
carry more information that electricity in copper wires.
 Medical endoscopes: they allow us to see down them and
are flexible so they don’t cause injury to the patient.
Cladding
Cladding is added to the outside of an optical fibre to reduce the
amount of light that is lost. It does this by giving the light rays a
second chance at TIR as seen in the diagram.
It does increase the critical angle but the shortest path through the
optical fibre is straight through, so only letting light which stays in the
core means the signal is transmitted quicker.
Consider the optical fibre with a refractive index of 1.5…
n2 1
sin θC = sin θC =
Without cladding n2 = 1 n1 1 .5 θC =41 .8 °
n2 1.4
sin θC = sin θC =
With cladding n2 = 1.4 n1 1.5 θ =69. 0 °
C
If the cladding had a lower refractive index than the core it is easier for light to travel through so the light would
bend away from the normal, Total Internal Reflection.
If the cladding had a higher refractive index than the core it is harder for light to travel through so the light would
bend towards the normal.
(Total 8 marks)
 Interference
Interference
Interference is a special case of superposition where the waves that combine are coherent. The waves overlap and
form a repeating interference pattern of maxima and minima areas. If the waves weren’t coherent the interference
pattern would change rapidly and continuously.
Coherence: Waves which are of the same frequency, wavelength, polarisation and amplitude and in a constant phase
relationship. A laser is a coherent source but a light bulb is not.
Constructive Interference: The path difference between the waves is a whole number of wavelengths so the waves
arrive in phase adding together to give a large wave. 2 peaks overlap
Destructive Interference: The path difference between the waves is a half number of wavelengths so the waves arrive
out of phase cancelling out to give no wave at all. A peak and trough overlap

Young’s Double Slit Experiment

In 1803 Thomas Young settled a debate started over 100
years earlier between Newton and Huygens by
demonstrating the interference of light. Newton thought
that light was made up of tiny particles called corpuscles
and Huygens thought that light was a wave, Young’s
interference of light proves light is a wave. Here is
Young’s double slit set up, the two slits act as coherent
sources of waves

Interference occurs where the light from the two slits

overlaps. Constructive interference produces bright
areas, while deconstructive interference produces dark
areas. These areas are called interference fringes.

Fringes
There is a central bright fringe directly behind the
midpoint between the slits with more fringes evenly
spaced and parallel to the slits.
As we move away from the centre of the screen we
see the intensity of the bright fringes decreases.

Double Source Experiment

The interference of sound is easy to demonstrate with two speakers connected to the same signal generator.
Waves of the same frequency (coherent) interfere with each other. Constructive interference produces loud
fringes, while deconstructive interference produces quiet fringes.

Derivation
We can calculate the separation of the fringes (w) if we
consider the diagram to the right which shows the first
bright fringe below the central fringe. The path
difference between the two waves is equal to one whole
wavelength (λ) for constructive interference.
If the distance to the screen (D) is massive compared to
the separation of the sources (s) the angle (θ) in the large triangle can be assumed the same as the angle in the
smaller triangle.
Opposite λ w
sin θ= sin θ= sin θ=
Hypotenuse For the small triangle: s For the large triangle: D
w λ w λ λD
=sin θ= = w=
Since the angles are the same we can write D s or D s
which rearranges to: s
Fringe Separation, Source Separation, Distance to Screen and Wavelength are measured in metres, m
w = λD/s
w = fringe spacing (m)
λ = wavelength (m)
D = Screen distance (m)
s = spacing between slits (m)

Diffraction

Diffraction
When waves pass through a gap they spread
out, this is called diffraction. The amount of
diffraction depends on the size of the
wavelength compared to the size of the gap.
In the first diagram the gap is several times wider than the wavelength so the wave only spreads out a little.
In the second diagram the gap is closer to the wavelength so it begins to spread out more.
In the third diagram the gap is now roughly the same size as the wavelength so it spreads out the most.

Diffraction Patterns
Here is the diffraction pattern from light being shone through a single slit.
There is a central maximum that is twice as wide as the others and by far the
brightest. The outer fringes are dimmer and of equal width.
If we use three, four or more slits the interference maxima become brighter,
narrower and further apart.

Diffraction Grating
A diffraction grating is a series of narrow, parallel slits. They
usually have around 500 slits per mm.
When light shines on the diffraction grating several bright sharp
lines can be seen as shown in the diagram to the right.
The first bright line (or interference maximum) lies directly behind
where the light shines on the grating. We call this the zero-order
maximum. At an angle of θ from this lies the next bright line called
the first-order maximum and so forth.
The zero-order maximum (n=0)
There is no path difference between neighbouring waves. They
arrive in phase and interfere constructively.
The first-order maximum (n=1)
There is a path difference of 1 wavelength between neighbouring
waves. They arrive in phase and interfere constructively.
The second-order maximum (n=2)
There is a path difference of 2 wavelengths between neighbouring
waves. They arrive in phase and interfere constructively.
Between the maxima
The path difference is not a whole number of wavelengths so the
waves arrive out of phase and interfere destructively.
Derivation
The angle to the maxima depends on the wavelength of the light and the separation of the
slits. We can derive an equation that links them by taking a closer look at two neighbouring
waves going to the first-order maximum.
The distance to the screen is so much bigger than the distance between two slits that
emerging waves appear to be parallel and can be treated that way.
 Consider the triangle to the right.
Opposite λ
sin θ= sin θ=
Hypotenuse  d  d sin θ= λ
For the nth order the opposite side of the triangle becomes nλ, making the equation:
d sin θ=nλ

Acknowledgements:
The notes in this booklet come from TES user dwyernathaniel. The original notes can be found here:
https://www.tes.com/teaching-resource/a-level-physics-notes-6337841
Questions from multiple areas (including progressive waves, longitudinal and transverse waves, refraction,
total internal reflection) come from Bernard Rand (@BernardRand). His original resources can be found
here:
https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1-2qNVLwGzJ_7AjQK9N0z4BQBIRmSHAwG
Questions in the superposition section come from the IoP TAP project. The original resources can be found
here:
https://spark.iop.org/episode-320-superposition#gref
Questions in the diffraction section come from the IoP TAP project. The original resources can be found
here:
https://spark.iop.org/episode-323-diffraction#gref