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3.1 Measurements and Their Errors v2

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53 views7 pages

3.1 Measurements and Their Errors v2

Uploaded by

johngoodwin1066
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
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Measurements

& errors
Name ______________________________
Teacher ______________________________
Use of SI units and their prefixes
The phrase SI units refers to the “Système International” units that scientists all over the
world have agreed to use so that they can easily compare their work.

There are 7 base units:

Quantity Unit Unit Symbol


Length Metre m
Time Second s
Mass Kilogram kg
Electric Current Ampere A
Temperature Kelvin K
Amount of Substance Mole mol
Luminosity (not needed at Candela cd
A Level)

Most units are actually combinations of these base units.

Simple examples include:

velocity ¿

Momentum ( kgm s−1 )=mass (kg) × velocity ( m s−1 )

Some combinations have their own unit name:

Force ( N )=mass( kg)×acceleration ( m s−2 )

This shows that 1 Newton is equivalent to 1 kgms-2 in base units.

Converting Units
Many quantities are commonly represented by units other than their base units, for a variety of reasons.
Some examples are displayed below:

Quantity Symbol Alternative unit Unit symbol Value in SI units


Energy E electron volt eV 1.6 × 10-19 J
Charge Q charge on electron e 1.6 × 10-19 C
Mass m atomic mass unit u 1.67 × 10-27 kg
Mass m tonne t 103 kg
Time t hour hr 3,600 s
Time t year yr 3.16 × 107 s
Distance d miles miles 1,609 m
Distance d astronomical unit AU 3.09 × 1011 m
Distance d light year ly 9.46 × 1015 m
Distance d parsec pc 3.09 × 1016 m

Mathematical Prefixes

Prefix Symbol Multiplier


femto f 10-15
pico p 10-12
nano n 10-9
micro µ 10-6
milli m 10-3
kilo k 103
mega M 106
giga G 109
tera T 1012
peta P 1015

When you are given a variable with a prefix you must convert it into its numerical equivalent in standard form before
you use it in an equation.
Limitation of physical measurements

Random error: Measurements vary due


to unpredictable circumstances. They
cannot be corrected and can only be
mitigated by making more measurements
and calculating a new mean.

Systematic error: Measurements differ


from the true value by a consistent
amount each time. They can be corrected
by using a different technique to take
measurements.

Precision: How close measurements are to each


other and the mean.

Accuracy: How close a measurement is to the


true value.

Repeatable: When the original experimenter repeats the investigation using the same method
and equipment and obtains the same results.

Reproducible: When somebody else repeats the investigation or the investigation is


performed using different equipment or techniques and the same results are obtained.

Resolution: The smallest change in a quantity being measured that gives a perceptible
change in the reading.
The uncertainty of a result is the interval within which the true value can be expected to lie.
The absolute uncertainty of a reading is no smaller than plus or minus half of the smallest
division. The absolute uncertainty of a measurement, where two judgements are required (e.g
measuring a length using a ruler), is twice this. For multiple readings, the absolute
uncertainty is half the range. Absolute uncertainties have the same units as the quantity.
range (largest value − smallest value)
absolute uncertainty= All measurements should be written as
2
mean value ± measurement error (a ± Δa). E.g. A voltmeter gives a reading of 1.70 ± 0.01 V.

Quoting results along with errors:

 When giving results in terms of scientific notation or in standard form, always quote
the value and the error with the same exponent.
 Quote the result to the same number of decimal places as the quoted error.
 Always quote the error to 1 or at most 2 significant figures.

Calculated quantities should be given to the same number of significant figures as the value
with the least number of significant figures that are used in the calculation.

In tables, data should be written to the same number of significant figures. However, when
‘crossing multiples of ten’, the same number of decimal places should be used, to avoid
changing the accuracy.
Usually (but not always!)
independent variable goes
on the x-axis and dependent
variable goes on the y axis.
Equation of a straight line
graph: y = mx + c
m = Δy ÷ Δx
For gradient on a curve, you
need to draw a tangent.

Errors can be show by error bars on a graph.


Absolute uncertainties of a gradient can be
calculated from worst case lines of best fit.

Can work out


some other quantities from area under the graph.
E.g. area under a force vs extension graph gives work
done.
The uncertainty in a data point on a graph, can be
represented by using error bars. Two lines of best fit should be drawn on the graph. The
‘best fit line’, which passes as close to the plotted points as is possible, and the ‘worst line of
best fit’, either the steepest, or the shallowest possible line which is constrained by the error
bars. The percentage uncertainty in the gradient, and y intercept, can them be found as:
( best gradient−worst gradient )
% uncertainty= × 100
best gradient

( best y intercept −worst y intercept )


% uncertainty= × 100
best y intercept
What Graph?
An essential aspect of carrying out a practical is plotting the data to determine how your variables are
related. It also allows us to determine values for constants to help decide whether the data collected is
accurate.
For the practicals outlined below, state the graph(s) that should be plotted. From this, explain what further
analysis you can do with the graph.

1. Energy of a photon
In an experiment there were a variety of LEDs, each with a different wavelength. The experiment allowed us
to determine the energy of the photons emitted by each LED. The following equation relates energy and the
wavelength:
hc
E=
λ
2. Acceleration of a falling ball
In an experiment a metal ball bearing was dropped from a range of heights. The time taken for the ball to fall
the distance was measured. The following equation relates acceleration and time taken:
2s
a=
t2
3. Resistivity of a wire
In an experiment, the resistance of a wire is obtained at a variety of different lengths. The resistivity, a
property of the material of the wire, is determined using the following equation:
RA
ρ=
L

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