QUALITY MANAGEMENT

UNIT 3
AKTU
WHAT IS HISTOGRAM
A histogram is a graphical representation of the distribution of a dataset. It is an estimate of the probability distribution of a
continuous variable. Here are the key components and steps involved in creating a histogram:
1. Data Collection: Gather the data that you want to represent.
2. Bins (Intervals): Divide the entire range of values into a series of intervals, known as bins.
3. Frequency Count: Count how many data points fall into each bin.
4. Plotting: Draw a bar for each bin where the height of the bar represents the frequency of data points in that bin
Vitality of Histograms:
1. Data Distribution: Visualizes how data is spread.
2. Pattern Identification: Detects skewness, outliers, and anomalies.
3. Comparison: Easily compare different datasets.
4. Data Summarization: Condenses large datasets into a visual format.
5. Decision Making: Informs strategies in various fields (business, quality control, healthcare).
• Example Uses:
• Business: Shows sales distribution over time.
• Quality Control: Identifies variations in product dimensions.
• Healthcare: Illustrates age distribution of patients with a disease
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PARETOGRAM
A Pareto diagram, or Pareto chart, is a bar chart that highlights the most significant factors in a data set, based
on the Pareto Principle (80/20 rule). It helps identify the problems that need the most attention
Steps to Construct a Pareto Diagram:
1. Identify Categories: Determine the categories (e.g., defect types).
2. Collect Data: Gather frequency or impact data for each category.
3. Order Categories: Arrange categories in descending order based on frequency or impact.
4. Calculate Percentages: Compute the percentage and cumulative percentage for each category.
5. Draw Axes: Create a horizontal axis for categories and a vertical axis for frequency or impact. Include a right
vertical axis for cumulative percentage.
6. Draw Bars: Plot bars for each category based on frequency or impact.
7. Plot Cumulative Line: Plot and connect points for the cumulative percentage.
8. Label the Chart: Add titles and labels to the axes, bars, and cumulative line

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1. Process Flow Diagram (Flowchart):
1. A flowchart is a visual representation of a process, showing the sequence of steps and decisions.
2. Symbols (rectangles, diamonds, etc.) represent each step, connected by arrows.
3. Example: Start -> Gather Requirements -> Design -> Develop -> Test -> Deploy -> End.

2. Check Sheets:
1. Check sheets (tally sheets) track the frequency of specific events.
2. Create a table with categories/items to tally occurrences.
3. Example: Defect Type | Tally (A: *****, B: ***, C: **, D: *).
4. Useful for quality control and process improvement.

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EXPLAIN CAUSE AND EFFECT DIAGRAM AND ITS CONSTRUCTION
Definition: Graphical tool to identify and present possible causes of a problem; also called fishbone or Ishikawa
diagram.
• Purpose:
• Identify and organize potential causes.
• Facilitate structured brainstorming and discussion.
• Pinpoint root causes.
• Components:
• Effect (Head): Problem or outcome being examined.
• Main Causes (Spines): Broad categories (e.g., Methods, Materials, Equipment, People, Environment, Measurement).
• Sub-Causes (Smaller Bones): Specific factors within each category.
Construction
1. Identify the Problem: Define the problem/effect clearly.
2. Draw the Backbone: Horizontal line with the problem at the head.
3. Identify Main Categories: Determine major cause categories.
4. Draw the Main Bones: Diagonal lines from the backbone for each category.
5. Brainstorm Potential Causes: List all possible causes under each category.
6. Analyze the Diagram: Identify the most likely root causes.
7. Take Action: Develop and implement a plan to address root causes; monitor effectiveness.
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Example
• Effect: High Defect Rate
• Main Categories:
• Methods: Poor process control, outdated procedures.
• Materials: Low-quality raw materials, inconsistent suppliers.
• Equipment: Malfunctioning machines, inadequate maintenance.
• People: Insufficient training, lack of motivation.
• Environment: Uncontrolled temperature, humidity issues.
• Measurement: Inaccurate measurements, lack of proper tools.

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WHAT IS A SCATTER DIAGRAM
Definition
• A scatter diagram (scatter plot) is a graph that displays values for two variables using Cartesian coordinates. Each
point represents a single data observation.
Purpose
• Identify relationships between two variables.
• Visualize data trends and patterns.
• Detect correlations (positive, negative, or none).
Components
• X-axis: Independent variable.
• Y-axis: Dependent variable.
• Data Points: Plotted to show the relationship between variables.
Construction Steps
1. Collect Data: Gather pairs of related data.
2. Draw Axes: X and Y axes labeled with variables and scales.
3. Plot Data Points: Each pair of values is a point on the graph.
4. Analyze Pattern: Look for correlations or trends.
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• Example
• Data: Hours Studied (X) vs. Test Scores (Y).
• Points: (2, 60), (3, 70), (4, 75), (5, 80), (6, 90).
• Pattern: Positive correlation (as study hours increase, test scores increase)

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OPERATING CHARACTERSTICS OF QUALITY CURVES
Operating characteristics (OC) curves are an essential tool in the field of quality control, particularly in acceptance sampling plans. These curves describe the
performance of a sampling plan by illustrating the probability of accepting a lot given its quality level. Here are the key c haracteristics and concepts related to OC
curves
Shape of the OC Curve:
• Ideal Curve: An ideal OC curve is a step function where all lots with a quality better than a certain level are accepted, and all worse are rejected. However, in
practice, OC curves are usually S-shaped.
• Slope: The steepness of the curve indicates the discriminating power of the sampling plan. A steeper curve means better discrimination between good and bad
lots.
3. Producer's Risk (Alpha, α):
• The probability of rejecting a good lot (usually a lot with a fraction defective equal to or better than the Acceptable Quality Level, AQL).
• Typically set at 5% or another small value, meaning there's a small risk that a good lot will be mistakenly rejected.
4. Consumer's Risk (Beta, β):
• The probability of accepting a bad lot (usually a lot with a fraction defective equal to or worse than the Lot Tolerance Percent Defective, LTPD).
• Typically set at 10% or another small value, meaning there's a small risk that a bad lot will be mistakenly accepted.
5. Acceptable Quality Level (AQL):
• The maximum percentage of defective items that is considered acceptable as a process average.
• It’s the quality level that a producer aims to maintain or surpass.
6. Lot Tolerance Percent Defective (LTPD):
• The worst quality level that is tolerable.
• Beyond this point, lots are expected to be rejected with a high probability.

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7.Operating Points:
• Points on the curve representing specific probabilities of acceptance for given quality levels, such as the AQL and
LTPD.
8. Inspection Levels and Sample Size:
• The sample size and the inspection level directly affect the shape of the OC curve. Larger sample sizes typically
result in steeper OC curves, meaning better discrimination between good and bad lots.
9. Types of Sampling Plans:
• Single Sampling Plan: One sample is drawn, and a decision to accept or reject the lot is based on the sample.
• Double Sampling Plan: Initial smaller sample taken, and a second sample is taken if the results of the first
sample are inconclusive.
• Multiple Sampling Plan: Extends the double sampling plan to more than two samples.
• Sequential Sampling Plan: Samples are taken sequentially, and a decision is made as soon as there is enough
evidence to accept or reject the lot.
10. Examples and Practical Usage:
• OC curves are used in various industries for quality assurance, helping decide on the acceptance criteria and
sample sizes to ensure products meet quality standards while balancing risks for both producers and consumers
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Shewhart Control Charts: Overview and Use in Reducing Defectives
Shewhart control charts, or statistical process control (SPC) charts, monitor production processes to ensure they
remain stable and within specified limits, thus reducing defectives.
Key Components:
1. Center Line (CL): Average value of the process.
2. Upper Control Limit (UCL): Maximum acceptable limit.
3. Lower Control Limit (LCL): Minimum acceptable limit.
4. Data Points: Measurements of the quality characteristic over time
Types of Charts:
• X-bar Chart: Monitors the mean of samples.
• R Chart: Monitors the range of samples.
• S Chart: Monitors the standard deviation.
• P Chart: Monitors the proportion of defectives.
• C Chart: Monitors the count of defects per unit
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Steps to Use:
1. Data Collection: Regularly measure and record the quality characteristic.
2. Plot Data: Plot the data points, CL, UCL, and LCL on the chart.
3. Analyze:
1. In-Control: Data points within limits, random pattern.
2. Out-of-Control: Points outside limits or non-random patterns.

4. Investigate & Correct: Identify and address causes of out-of-control points.

5. Continuous Monitoring: Keep using the charts to maintain process control
Benefits in Reducing Defectives:
1. Early Detection: Catch and correct issues early.
2. Root Cause Analysis: Identify and eliminate causes of variations.
3. Preventive Actions: Prevent defects from recurring.
4. Process Optimization: Improve process stability and efficiency
Example: A factory monitors rod diameters with X-bar and R charts. By plotting sample means and ranges hourly,
deviations are quickly spotted and corrected, maintaining product quality and reducing defects
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CONSTRUCTION AND ANALYSIS OF R CHART
• Purpose: An R chart monitors the variability of a process over time.
• Steps to Construct an R Chart:

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