PHYLUM ECHINODERMATA

Examples: Sea star, Brittle star, Sea urchin, Sea cucumber, Sea feather

General characteristics of this phylum are

1. Habitat:exclusively marine
2. They show radial symmetry.
3. They have water vascular system:it is a network of uid lled canals and tube feet this system
aids in locomotion, feeding and gas exchanging.
4. They are triploblastic, radially symmetrical, coelomates and show organ system.
5. They have spiny skin that provides protection and aids in camou age.
6. They have endoskeleton made of calcium carbonate plates called ossicles.
7. They are unisexual, fertilisation is external and development is indirect.

Phylum Hemichordate:
EXAMPLE: Balonoglossus.

This phylum is a link between Nonchordates and chordates.

General characteristics of this phylum are:
1. Habitat: Exclusively marine
2. Bilaterally symmetrical and triploblastic
3. They make burrows and live in there
4. They are lter feeders
5. They have Proboscis, reproduction is unisexual, development is external, development is
direct or indirect. through which they make burrows and also excretion.
6. Stomocord is present which was earlier considered to be notochord.

Phylum Chordata:
This phylum has four important common characters:

1. Notochord: Chordates have a notochord, which is a exible rod-like structure that runs along
the length of the body. In most vertebrates, the notochord is replaced by the vertebral column
(backbone) during development.

2. Dorsal Nerve Cord: They possess a dorsal nerve cord that runs along the backside of the
body. In vertebrates, this develops into the spinal cord.

3. Pharyngeal Slits: Chordates also have pharyngeal slits, which are openings in the region
behind the mouth. In aquatic species, these slits function in lter-feeding and gas exchange. In
some chordates, they develop into gill arches or other structures.

4. Endostyle or Thyroid Gland*: An endostyle or a thyroid gland is present in the pharyngeal

region. This structure helps with lter-feeding or regulating iodine metabolism.

5. Post-Anal Tail: Chordates typically have a post-anal tail that extends beyond the anus. In some
species, the tail disappears during development.

Chordata is divided into two subphyla:

1. Protochordata: skull is absent in this type of organisms this sub phylum is divided into
two subphyla

1. Urochordata: (Tunicates):examples: sea squirts and sales

2. These are the tunicates or sea squirts, marine animals that often have a sac-like body
structure. They exhibit chordate characteristics during their larval stage. But many of these
traits are lost during their transition to the adult stage.
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2. Cephalochordata:
Lancelets are part of this subphylum. They are small, sh-like marine animals that retain chordate
characteristics throughout their lives.

3. Euchordata /Vertebrata:
This subphylum includes animals with a vertebral column, or backbone. They posses cranium that
protects the brain and a wide range of complex sensory organs.
Vertebrates are further categorized into classes such as shes, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and
mammals.

Within the subphylum Vertebrata, there are several classes that further categorize vertebrate
animals:

- Class Agnatha: Jawless sh like lampreys and hag sh.

- Class Gnathostoma: This organisms have jaws.
Gnathostoma is further divided into 2 super class
1.PISCES: These animals does not posses limbs.

2. Tetrapods: They are the animals with four legs example : all animals that come under the class
amphibians, reptiles, Aves, Mammals.

SUPER CLASS PISCES: It is divided into two types

Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous sh)

include sharks, rays, and skates.
Some characteristics of Chondrichthyes are:

1. Skeleton:They have a cartilaginous skeleton instead of bones.

2. Scales: Their skin is covered in tooth-like scales called denticles.
3. Respiration: Most of them respire through gills.
4. Reproduction: They have internal fertilization, with males using claspers to transfer sperm to
females.
5. Buoyancy: Many chondrichthyans have a specialized organ called a "liver" rich in oil, which
helps them control buoyancy.
6. Teeth:They have multiple rows of replaceable teeth.
7. Habitat: They are mainly marine species.

Osteichthyes (bony sh)

They are a diverse group of sh that includes most sh species.
Some characteristics of Osteichthyes are:

1. Skeleton:They have a bony skeleton.

2. Scales: Their skin is covered in scales made of bone.
3. Respiration: They also respire through gills.
4. Reproduction: They have various reproductive strategies, including external and internal
fertilization.
5. Swim Bladder:Many osteichthyans have a swim bladder, an air- lled sac that helps control
buoyancy.
6. Jaws and Teeth: They have movable jaws and teeth that are not directly attached to the skull.
7. Habitat:They can be found in both freshwater and marine environments.

AMPHIBIANS:
Characteristics of Amphibians:
1. Moist Skin:They have permeable skin that allows gas exchange and water absorption.
2. Metamorphosis:Most amphibians undergo metamorphosis, transitioning from aquatic larvae to
terrestrial adults.
3. Dual Respiration: They can respire through both lungs and their skin.
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 4. Aquatic Larval Stage:Most amphibians start their life cycle in water as aquatic larvae (e.g.,
tadpoles).
5. Semi-Aquatic Lifestyle: Adult amphibians typically need to be near water sources due to their
skin's moisture requirements.
6. External Fertilization:*They often reproduce by laying eggs in water, where fertilization occurs
externally.
7. Ectothermic: They are cold-blooded animals, relying on external heat sources to regulate their
body temperature.
8. Webbed Feet: Many amphibians have webbed feet for swimming.
9. Three-Chambered Heart: Amphibians generally have a three-chambered heart, except for some
exceptions.

REPTILIA
Characteristics of reptile are:
1.Scale-Covered Skin: Reptiles have dry and scaly skin that helps prevent water loss, making
them well-suited for life on land.
2.Ectothermy: Reptiles are cold-blooded, meaning their body temperature is regulated by external
heat sources.
3.Lungs: They respire primarily using lungs, adapting to terrestrial environments.
4.Internal Fertilization: Reptiles practice internal fertilization, with males transferring sperm to
females.
5.Amniotic Eggs: Reptiles lay amniotic eggs with protective membranes that allow them to
develop on land.
6.Three-Chambered Heart: Most reptiles have a three-chambered heart, with the exception of
some crocodilians that have a four-chambered heart.
7.Jaws and Teeth: Reptiles have well-developed jaws and teeth adapted to their speci c diets.
8.Tetrapod Limbs: They typically have four limbs, although some species have reduced limbs or
none at all.
9.Habitat Diversity: Reptiles inhabit a wide range of habitats, including deserts, forests,
grasslands, and aquatic environments.
10.Behavioral Adaptations: They exhibit various behaviors, such as basking in the sun to regulate
body temperature.
11.Reproductive Diversity: Reproductive methods vary; some reptiles give birth to live young
(viviparous), while others lay eggs (oviparous).

AVES
Characteristic features of aves are:
1. Feathers: Birds are known for their unique feature of feathers, which provide insulation, enable
ight, and aid in communication and display.
2.Endothermy: Birds are warm-blooded, maintaining a constant body temperature through
internal metabolic processes.
3.Beaks: Birds have beaks (also known as bills) that are adapted to their speci c diets, such as
cracking seeds, catching insects, or probing for nectar.
4.Light Skeleton: Birds have lightweight skeletons with air sacs connected to their lungs, which
contribute to e cient respiration and ight.
5.High Metabolic Rate: Birds have a high metabolic rate to support their active lifestyles, including
ying and foraging.
6.Air Sacs and Lungs: Birds have a unique respiratory system with air sacs that allow for a
continuous ow of air through the lungs, ensuring e cient gas exchange.
7.Four-Chambered Heart: Birds have a four-chambered heart, which allows for e cient separation
of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.
8.Oviparous Reproduction: Birds lay eggs with hard shells, protecting the developing embryo.
Many birds incubate their eggs to keep them warm until they hatch.
9.Parental Care: Birds often exhibit parental care, including feeding and protecting their young,
which varies based on species and lifestyle.
10.Excellent Vision: Birds generally have excellent vision, which is crucial for activities such as
foraging, navigation, and predator detection.
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 12.Adaptations for Flight: While not all birds can y, those that do have adaptations like hollow
bones, powerful muscles, and specialized wing structures.
13.Wide Range of Habitats: Birds are found in various habitats, including forests, grasslands,
deserts, oceans, and urban areas.
14.Diverse Diets: Birds have a wide range of diets, including herbivores, carnivores, insectivores,
omnivores, and nectar feeders.

These characteristics collectively de ne the class Aves and showcase the remarkable adaptations
that birds have evolved for their diverse lifestyles and environments.

MAMMALIA
Certainly, here are some key characteristics of mammals:

1. Hair or Fur:Mammals are characterized by having hair or fur on their bodies, which serves
various purposes such as insulation, camou age, and sensory functions.

2. Mammary Glands: All mammals have mammary glands that produce milk to nourish their
young.

3. Endothermy:Mammals are warm-blooded, meaning they can regulate their body temperature
internally.

4. Four-Chambered Heart:Mammals have a four-chambered heart that separates oxygenated and

deoxygenated blood, allowing for e cient circulation.

5. Diaphragm:*Most mammals have a diaphragm, a muscle that aids in breathing by expanding

and contracting the chest cavity.

6. Heterodont Dentition:* Mammals have di erent types of teeth with various shapes and
functions (incisors, canines, premolars, molars) suited to their diets.

7. Well-Developed Brain:Mammals generally have well-developed brains compared to other

animals, with a relatively large cerebral cortex.

8. Internal Fertilization: Most mammals practice internal fertilization, with males transferring sperm
to females.

9. Live Birth:*Most mammals give birth to live young, although there are exceptions, like
monotremes (egg-laying mammals).

10. Parental Care: Many mammals provide extensive parental care, including nursing, protection,
and teaching survival skills to their o spring.

11. Variety of Locomotion:Mammals display diverse modes of movement, including walking,

running, ying, swimming, and climbing.

12. Large Variation in Size:Mammals range in size from tiny shrews to enormous whales,
showcasing a vast spectrum of body sizes.

15. Diverse Habitats:Mammals inhabit nearly every type of habitat on Earth, from deserts and
forests to oceans and arctic tundras.

These characteristics collectively de ne the class Mammalia and contribute to the wide diversity
of mammals that exist across the planet.

SOME IMPORTANT QUESTIONS:

1.
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