UNIT-1: Introduction to Research methodology

Concept/Meaning of Research :
=> Research refers to the process of systematic enquiry or investigation into a specific
problem or issue that lead to new or improved knowledge for solving problems. According
to E.N. Kerlinger. "Research is a systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of
hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena."
OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH:
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of
Scientific procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and
which has not been discovered as yet.
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated
with something else
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables

MOTIVATION IN RESEARCH:
What makes people undertake research? This is a question of fundamental
importance.factors such as directives of government, employment conditions, curiosity
about new
things, desire to understand causal relationships, social thinking and awakening, and the
like may as
well motivate (or at times compel) people to perform research operations.
CONCEPT OF DEDUCTIVE AND INDUCTIVE THEORY:
Deductive and inductive reasoning are two distinct approaches to forming theories and
making conclusions in research and logic. They represent different ways of thinking about
how knowledge is generated and how theories are developed.
Deductive Reasoning: Deductive reasoning starts with a general premise or theory and then
applies it to a specific situation to draw a specific conclusion. It involves moving from the
general to the specific.
The process typically follows these steps:
1. Start with a General Theory or Premise:Deductive reasoning begins with a well
established theory, principle, or premise.
2. Formulate a Hypothesis: Based on the general theory, a specific hypothesis is
formulated about a particular situation or observation.
3. Test the Hypothesis: Data is collected and analyzed to test the hypothesis. The goal is
to confirm or refute the hypothesis.
4. Draw a Conclusion: The analysis of data leads to a specific conclusion, which is
consistent with the general theory.
In other words, in deductive reasoning, if the premises are true and the reasoning is valid,
the conclusion is guaranteed to be true.
Example of Deductive Reasoning:
- General Premise: "All humans are mortal."
- Specific Observation: "Socrates is a human."
- Conclusion: "Therefore, Socrates is mortal."

Inductive Reasoning:
Inductive reasoning involves making generalizations based on specific observations or
evidence. It moves from the specific to the general. The process typically follows these
steps:
1. Observe Specific Instances: Inductive reasoning starts with the collection of specific
observations or examples.
2. Identify Patterns or Trends:From these observations, patterns, trends, or
regularities are identified.
3. Formulate a General Hypothesis or Theory: Based on the observed patterns, a
general hypothesis or theory is formulated.
4. Test the Hypothesis: The hypothesis is tested using additional observations or
evidence.
5. Draw a Tentative Conclusion: The hypothesis is supported by the evidence, but the
conclusion is not guaranteed to be true, as new evidence could change the conclusion.
In inductive reasoning, the conclusion is probabilistic and open to revision as more
evidence becomes available.
Example of Inductive Reasoning:
- Specific Observations: "Every crow I have seen is black."
- General Hypothesis: "All crows are black."
- Conclusion: "Therefore, it is likely that crows are black, but more observations are needed
to confirm this with certainty."
In summary, deductive reasoning starts with a general premise and applies it to specific
cases, while inductive reasoning starts with specific observations and generalizes to
broader conclusions. Both reasoning methods are used in scientific research and everyday
decision-making, with deductive reasoning being more focused on validity and certainty,
and inductive reasoning being more focused on probability and generalization.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SCIENTIFIC METHOD::

Research,can be termed as “an inquiry into the nature of, the reasons for, and the
consequences of any particular set of circumstances, whether these circumstances are
experimentally controlled or recorded just as they occur. Further, research implies the
researcher is interested in more than particular results; he is interested in the repeatability of the
results and in their extension to more complicated and general situations.”7 On the other hand,
the philosophy common to all research methods and techniques, although they may vary
considerably from one science to another, is usually given the name of scientific method. In
Scientific method is the pursuit of truth as determined by logical considerations. The ideal of
science is to achieve a systematic interrelation of facts. Scientific method attempts to achieve
“this ideal by experimentation, observation, logical arguments from accepted postulates and a
combination of these three in varying proportions.”
The scientific method is, thus, based on certain basic postulates which can be stated as under:
.It relies on empirical evidence;
It utilizes relevant concepts;
It is committed to only objective considerations;
It presupposes ethical neutrality, i.e., it aims at nothing but making only adequate and correct
statements about population objects;
It results into probabilistic predictions;
Its methodology is made known to all concerned for critical scrutiny are for use in testing
the conclusions through replication;
It aims at formulating most general axioms or what can be termed as scientific theories.

UNDERSTANDING OF CONCEPT, CONSTRUCT, VARIABLE::

The terms "concept," "construct," and "variable" are important concepts in research and are
often used interchangeably. However, they have distinct meanings within the context of
research and measurement. Here's a breakdown of each term:
1. Concept:
A concept is a general idea, notion, or abstraction that represents some aspect of the real
world. Concepts are mental representations of things, qualities, or phenomena. They are
often the starting point for formulating research questions and hypotheses. Concepts can
be concrete (e.g., "temperature," "age") or abstract (e.g., "happiness," "justice"). They serve
as the building blocks of understanding and organizing information.
2. Construct:
A construct is an abstract concept that is intentionally created or defined for a specific
purpose within a research context. Constructs are used to represent complex ideas that
cannot be directly observed or measured. Researchers develop constructs to represent
theoretical concepts that are relevant to their research. Constructs are often defined by
specifying their dimensions or components and the relationships among those
components.
Example: In psychology, "self-esteem" is a construct that represents a person's overall
evaluation of their own worth and value. It cannot be directly observed, but researchers
define it by identifying indicators (variables) that contribute to self-esteem, such as self
confidence, self-respect, and self-acceptance.
3. Variable:
A variable is a measurable characteristic or property that can take on different values.
Variables are used to operationalize constructs, meaning they provide a specific way to
measure or quantify a construct. Variables can be divided into two main types:
- Independent Variable (IV): The variable that is manipulated or controlled by the
researcher in an experiment. It is hypothesized to cause changes in the dependent variable. -
Dependent Variable (DV): The variable that is observed or measured to determine
the effects of the independent variable. It's the outcome variable researchers are interested
in studying.
Example: In a study investigating the effect of studying time (IV) on exam
performance (DV), studying time is the independent variable, and exam performance is the
dependent variable.
In summary, concepts are general ideas or mental representations, constructs are
intentionally defined abstractions used in research, and variables are measurable attributes
that operationalize constructs. Together, these concepts help researchers formulate
hypotheses, design studies, and analyze data to gain a deeper understanding of the
phenomena they're studying.

RESEARCH PROCESS
Research process consists of a series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry out
research and the desired sequencing of these steps. The chart shown in Figure 1.1 well
illustrates a research process.
1. Formulating the research problem:
Formulation of the problem often follows a sequential pattern where a number of
formulations are set up, each formulation more specific than the preceding one, each one
phrased in more analytical terms, and each more realistic in terms of the available data and
resources.

2. Extensive literature survey: Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it should be
written down. It is compulsory for a research worker writing a thesis for a Ph.D. degree to write a
synopsis of the topic and submit it to the necessary Committee or the Research Board for
approval. In this process, it should be remembered that one source will lead to another. The
earlier studies, if any, which are similar to the study in hand should be carefully studied. A good
library will be a great help to the researcher at this stage.

3. Development of working hypotheses: After extensive literature survey, researchers should

state in clear terms the working hypothesis or hypotheses. Working hypothesis is a tentative
assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences.
Working hypotheses arise as a result of a-priori thinking about the subject, examination of the
available data and material including related studies and the counsel of experts and interested
parties.

4. Preparing the research design: The research problem having been formulated in clear cut
terms, the researcher will be required to prepare a research design, i.e., he will have to state
the conceptual structure within which research would be conducted. The function of research
design is to provide for the collection of relevant evidence with minimal expenditure of effort,
time and money.

5. Determining sample design:

The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or what is popularly known as the
sample design. In other words, a sample design is a definite plan determined before any data
are actually collected for obtaining a sample from a given population.
6. Collecting the data: In dealing with any real life problem it is often found that data at hand are
inadequate, and hence, it becomes necessary to collect data that are appropriate. There are
several ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ considerably in context of money
costs, time and other resources at the disposal of the researcher.

7. Execution of the project: Execution of the project is a very important step in the research
process. If the execution of the project proceeds on correct lines, the data to be collected would
be adequate and dependable. If the survey is to be conducted by means of structured
questionnaires, data can be readily machine-processed. In such a situation, questions as well
as the possible answers may be coded. If the data are to be collected through interviewers,
arrangements should be made for proper selection and training of the interviewers.

8. Analysis of data: After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of
analyzing them. The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as
establishment of categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding,
tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences.

9. Hypothesis-testing: After analyzing the data as stated above, the researcher is in a position to
test the hypotheses, if any, he had formulated earlier. Do the facts support the hypotheses or
they happen to be contrary? This is the usual question which should be answered while testing
hypotheses.

10. Generalizations and interpretation: If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may
be possible for the researcher to arrive at generalization, i.e., to build a theory. As a matter of
fact, the real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at certain generalizations. If the
researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain his findings on the basis of
some theory. It is known as interpretation. The process of interpretation may quite often trigger
off new questions which in turn may lead to further research.

11. Preparation of the report or the thesis: Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of
what has been done by him. Writing of report must be done with great care keeping in view the
following:
1.The layout of the report should be as follows: (i) the preliminary pages; (ii) the main text,
and (iii) the end matter.
2.Report should be written in a concise and objective style in simple language avoiding vague
expressions such as ‘it seems,’ ‘there may be’, and the like.
3.Charts and illustrations in the main report should be used only if they present the information
more clearly and forcibly.
UNIT 2: RESEARCH DESIGN (6 HRS.)

CONCEPT OF RESEARCH DESIGN

“A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of
data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in
procedure.” In fact, the research design is the conceptual structure within which research is
conducted; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data. As
such the design includes an outline of what the researcher will do from writing the hypothesis
and its operational implications to the final analysis of data.

NEED FOR RESEARCH DESIGN:Research design is needed because it facilitates the smooth
sailing of the various research operations. It makes the research as efficient as possible by
giving maximum information with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money.In short, the
need for research design is as follows –
Provides a firm foundation to the endeavor.
It reduces inaccuracy.
Helps to get maximum efficiency and reliability.
Eliminates bias and marginal errors.
Minimizes wastage of time.
Reduce uncertainty, confusion and practical haphazard related to any research problem.

FEATURES OF A GOOD DESIGN

A good design is often characterized by adjectives like flexible, appropriate, efficient,
economical and so on. Generally, the design which minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability
of the data collected and analyzed is considered a good design.
There are following features of good research design. Which are as follows.
1.Research Design should clarify the Particular research problem.
2.It Provides guidelines for specific methods of data collection & Analysis.
3.Research Design should be Flexible, efficient & Economical in nature.
4.Research Design minimizes Biasness of Study.
5.Research Design must support reliability of data

Criteria of Good Research

1. Good research is systematic: It means that research is structured with specified steps to
be taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well defined set of rules. Systematic
characteristic of the research does not rule out creative thinking but it certainly does reject
the use of guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions.
2. Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical
reasoning and the logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying
out research. Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to the whole whereas
deduction is the process of reasoning from some premise to a conclusion which follows
from that very premise. In fact, logical reasoning makes research more meaningful in the
context of decision making.
3. Good research is empirical: It implies that research is related basically to one or more
aspects of a real situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external
validity to research results.
4. Good research is replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be verified by
replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions

TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN :

Based on the aim of study, there are three types of research design :
1) Exploratory Research Design :
Exploratory research studies are also termed as formulative research studies. The main
purpose of such studies is that of formulating a problem for more precise investigation or of
developing the working hypotheses from an operational point of view. In an exploratory or
formulative research study which merely leads to insights or hypotheses, Whatever method or
research design outlined above is adopted, the only thing essential is that it must continue to
remain flexible so that many different facets of a problem may be considered as and when they
arise and come to the notice of the researcher.
2) Descriptive Research Design :
Descriptive research studies are those studies which are concerned with describing the
characteristics of a particular individual, or of a group, whereas diagnostic research studies
determine the frequency with which something occurs or its association with something else.
The studies concerning whether certain variables are associated are examples of diagnostic
research studies. As against this, studies concerned with specific predictions, with narration of
facts and characteristics concerning individual, group or situation are all examples of descriptive
research studies.
3) Experimental or Causal Research Design :

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

Professor Fisher has enumerated three principles of experimental designs: (1) the Principle of
Replication; (2) the Principle of Randomization; and the (3) Principle of Local Control.
According to the Principle of Replication, the experiment should be repeated more than
once.Thus, each treatment is applied in many experimental units instead of one. By doing so
the statistical accuracy of the experiments is increased.
The Principle of Randomization provides protection, when we conduct an experiment, against
the effect of extraneous factors by randomization.
The Principle of Local Control is another important principle of experimental designs. Under it
the extraneous factor, the known source of variability, is made to vary deliberately over as wide
a range as necessary and this needs to be done in such a way that the variability it causes can
be measured and hence eliminated from the experimental error.
Quantitative Research:
1)Purpose --Supports a hypothesis through a review of the literature
2)Aim --Provides a statistical model of what the literature presents
3)Previous Knowledge -Researcher already knows what has been discovered
4)Phase in Process --Generally occurs later in the research process
5)Research Design --Designed before research begins
6)Data-Gathering --Data is gathered using tools like surveys or computer programs
7)Form of Data --Data is numerical
8)Objectivity of Research --More objective; researcher measures and analyzes data
9)Keywords --Quantitative, survey, literature review
Qualitative Research:
Purpose --Used for exploration, generates a hypothesis
Aim --Provides an in-depth description of the research methods to be used
Previous Knowledge --Researcher has a general idea of what will be discovered
Phase in Process --Usually occurs early in the research process
Research Design--Design is developed during research
Data-Gathering --Researcher gathers data from interviews, etc.
Form of Data --Data takes the form of interviews, videos, artifacts
Objectivity of Research --More subjective; researcher interprets eventsKeywords --Qualitative,
methods, results, interviews
EMPIRICAL RESEARCH::
Empirical research methodologies can be described as quantitative, qualitative, or a mix of
both (usually called mixed-methods).Both quantitative and qualitative methods are
empirical. If you can recognize that a research study is quantitative or qualitative study,
then you have also recognized that it is empirical study.
unit-2
APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENT RESEARCH DESIGNS AND
THEIR LIMITATIONS:
Different research designs have distinct applications and limitations, making them suitable
for specific research objectives and questions. Here's an overview of common research
designs, their applications, and their limitations:
1. Experimental Design:
- Application: Experimental designs are used when researchers want to establish
cause-and-effect relationships between variables. They involve manipulating an
independent variable to observe its effects on a dependent variable while controlling for
confounding variables.
- Limitations:Experimental designs can be challenging to implement ethically,
especially if manipulation of variables could harm participants. Additionally, experimental
settings may lack ecological validity, and controlling all variables might not reflect real
world complexity.
2. Observational Design:
- Application: Observational designs are used to study phenomena in their natural
settings without intervening or manipulating variables. They are valuable for understanding
complex behaviors, interactions, and contexts.
- Limitations: Observational studies may lack control over variables, leading to
potential confounding factors. Observer bias and subjectivity can also affect data reliability.
It's often challenging to establish causal relationships in observational research.
3. Survey Design:
- Application:Survey designs involve collecting data through structured
questionnaires or interviews. They are effective for gathering information about opinions,
attitudes, behaviors, and characteristics of a large sample.
- Limitations: Surveys rely on participants' self-reported data, which might be subject
to response bias, memory errors, or social desirability bias. Question phrasing and order
can also influence responses.
4. Case Study Design:
- Application: Case studies involve in-depth exploration of a single case or a small
number of cases. They are valuable for gaining detailed insights into complex phenomena
or unique situations.
- Limitations: Findings from case studies might not generalize well to broader
populations. They are often criticized for lacking statistical rigor and generalizability due to
the small sample size.
5. Longitudinal Design:
- Application: Longitudinal designs follow participants over an extended period,
observing changes and developments over time. They are useful for studying
developmental trajectories, trends, and stability of variables.
- Limitations:Longitudinal studies are resource-intensive and time-consuming.
Attrition, where participants drop out over time, can impact the validity of findings.
Changes in measurement instruments or external factors can also affect results.
6. Cross-Sectional Design:
- Application: Cross-sectional designs involve collecting data from different
individuals at a single point in time. They are useful for examining relationships and
differences among variables across groups.
- Limitations: Cross-sectional studies cannot establish causal relationships, as they
only capture associations at a single time point. Temporal changes and cohort effects can
impact findings.
7. Qualitative Design:
- Application: Qualitative designs involve exploring complex phenomena through in
depth interviews, observations, or content analysis. They provide rich contextual insights
and understanding.
- Limitations: Qualitative research lacks statistical generalizability due to its small
sample sizes. Interpretation subjectivity and potential researcher bias can influence
Findings.

CONCEPT OF DEPENDENT VARIABLE, INDEPENDENT VARIABLE AND ASSESSMENT

OF THEIR RELATIONSHIPS:

Dependent and independent variables: A concept which can take on different quantitative
values are called variables. As such the concepts like weight, height, income are all examples of
variables. Qualitative phenomena (or the attributes) are also quantified on the basis of the
presence or absence of the concerning attribute(s). Phenomena which can take on
quantitatively different values even in decimal points are called ‘continuous variables’.* But all
variables are not continuous.If they can only be expressed in integer values, they are non-
continuous variables or in statistical language ‘discrete variables’. Age is an example of
continuous variable, but the number of children is an example of non-continuous variable. If one
variable depends upon or is a consequence of the other variable, it is termed as a dependent
variable, and the variable that is antecedent to the dependent variable is termed as an
independent variable.

Assessment of Relationships:
Assessing the relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable is
a fundamental aspect of research, especially in studies seeking to establish cause-and
affect relationships. Here's how researchers assess these relationships:
1. Experimental Studies: In experimental studies, researchers manipulate the independent
variable to observe its effects on the dependent variable. They compare outcomes between the
experimental group (exposed to the independent variable) and the control group (not exposed).
If there is a significant difference between the groups, researchers can infer a causal
relationship.
2. Correlational Studies:In correlational studies, researchers examine the strength and direction
of the relationship between variables without manipulation. They calculate correlation
coefficients (such as Pearson's correlation coefficient) to quantify the degree of association
between variables. A positive correlation means that as one variable increases, the other tends
to increase, and vice versa. A negative correlation means that as one variable increases, the
others tend to decrease.
3. Regression Analysis:
Regression analysis is used to model the relationship between variables, often when one
variable is considered the predictor (similar to an independent variable) and the other is the
response (similar to a dependent variable). It helps quantify how changes in the predictor
variables are associated with changes in the response variable.
4.Causality and Control:To establish causality, researchers need to demonstrate temporal
precedence (the cause occurs before the effect), co-variation (changes in the cause are related
to changes in the effect), and rule out alternative explanations. Controlled experiments are
particularly effective in establishing causal relationships because researchers can control for
confounding variables.

ISSUE OF GENERALIZATION OF RESEARCH FINDINGS:

The issue of generalization in research refers to the extent to which the findings and
conclusions drawn from a study can be applied or extended to a broader population,
context, or situation beyond the specific sample or setting that was studied. Generalization
is a critical consideration in research, as the goal is often to make broader inferences and
contribute to the advancement of knowledge. However, there are several factors that can
impact the extent to which research findings can be generalized:
1. Sampling Bias:If the sample used in the study is not representative of the larger population of
interest,the findings might not generalize accurately. Sampling bias occurs when certain groups
are overrepresented or underrepresented in the sample.
2. Sample Size:
Small sample sizes may limit the ability to draw reliable conclusions and generalize
findings. Larger samples are generally more representative and have greater statistical
power.
3. Homogeneity of Sample:
If the sample is homogeneous in terms of demographics, characteristics, or behaviors, it
might not reflect the diversity present in the broader population. This can limit the
generalizability of findings.
4. Contextual Factors:
Findings that are valid in one context may not hold true in different settings or under
different conditions. Contextual factors, such as cultural norms, geographic location, and
historical trends can influence the applicability of findings.
5. Time Frame:Changes over time can affect the generalizability of research findings. What is
true today might not hold true in the future due to shifts in societal, technological, or economic
factors.
Some fields or disciplines may have unique considerations that affect generalizability. For
Instance, medical research may need to consider differences in patient populations.
To enhance the generalizability of research findings, researchers can:
- Use appropriate sampling methods to increase representativeness.
- Conduct multi-site or cross-cultural studies to test findings in diverse contexts.
- Clearly describe the study's limitations and potential generalizability constraints.
Unit 3: Identification and Formulation of Research Question (5 Hrs.)
IDENTIFICATION OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND ITS FORMULATION:
Identifying a clear research problem is the first and a critical step in any social science research
project. A research problem refers to a specific issue, concern, or topic that needs to be
investigated. The purpose of identifying a research problem is to provide a clear focus and
direction for the research, and to guide the selection of appropriate research methods and
techniques.
One source of identifying research problems is through the existing literature and research in
the field of study. This involves conducting a thorough review of relevant literature to identify
gaps, inconsistencies, and areas where further research is needed. This approach ensures that
the research problem is relevant and meaningful to the field of study.
Another source for identifying research problems is personal experience or observation.
Researchers may draw on their own experiences or observations to identify an issue or problem
that requires investigation. This approach can provide a unique perspective and insight into the
research problem.
Social, political, or cultural issues can also be sources for identifying research problems. These
issues may affect individuals or groups in a particular context, and may require investigation to
better understand their impact on society.
Criteria for selecting research problems include the significance and relevance of the problem,
the feasibility and manageability of the research project, and the novelty and originality of the
research problem. A well-formulated research problem should be significant and relevant to the
field of study, manageable within the constraints of the research project, and original in its
approach.
In conclusion, identifying a clear research problem is a crucial first step in any social science
research project. It is important to carefully consider various sources and criteria when selecting
a research problem to ensure that it is relevant, meaningful, and feasible. A well-formulated
research problem can provide important insights into human behavior, society, and culture, and
can contribute to the advancement of knowledge in the field of study.

Formulating Research Problems

Formulating a clear research problem is a critical step in any social science research project. A
research problem refers to a specific issue, concern, or topic that needs to be investigated. The
formulation process involves identifying research variables, developing research questions and
hypotheses, and establishing research objectives and aims.
The first step in formulating a research problem is identifying research variables. Variables are
factors that can vary and have an effect on the outcome of the research. Researchers must
define the variables they will study, identify the independent and dependent variables, and also
consider intervening variables that may affect the relationship between the independent and
dependent variables.
The second step in formulating a research problem is developing research questions and
hypotheses. Research questions are open-ended questions that guide the research and help to
identify the variables that need to be measured. Hypotheses are specific statements about the
relationship between variables and guide the design and analysis of the research. Hypotheses
must be testable and measurable to provide clear guidance for the research.
The final step in formulating a research problem is establishing research objectives and aims.
Objectives are specific goals that the research aims to achieve, while aims are broader
statements about the overall purpose of the research. Researchers must establish clear and
measurable objectives and aims to guide the research process and ensure that the research
problem is fully addressed.

Overall, formulating a clear research problem involves identifying research variables, developing
research questions and hypotheses, and establishing research objectives and aims. This
process is critical to the success of any social science research project and helps to ensure that
the research problem is clearly defined and fully addressed.

RESEARCH OBJECTIVES::
Research objectives are specific statements that outline the goals or purposes of a research
study. They provide a clear and focused direction for the research and guide the research
process from start to finish. Research objectives help researchers understand what they
need to achieve and what specific outcomes they are aiming for. Here's how to formulate
research objectives:
1. Be Specific: Research objectives should be clear and specific, avoiding vague or overly broad
statements. They should outline exactly what you intend to achieve in your study.
2. Align with Research Questions:Research objectives should directly address the research
questions you have formulated.Each research objective should correspond to a specific
research question.
3. Be Measurable: Objectives should be measurable, meaning that you should be able to
determine whether you have achieved them or not. This often involves using quantitative or
qualitative indicators.
4. Reflect Scope and Feasibility: Make sure your research objectives are realistic and
achievable within the resources, time frame, and scope of your study.
5. Consider Types of Objectives: Research objectives can vary based on the type of study:
- Exploratory Objectives: Aim to gain a deeper understanding of a topic and generate
hypotheses.
- Descriptive Objectives: Seek to describe characteristics, phenomena, or patterns.
- Explanatory Objectives: Focus on establishing cause-and-effect relationships.
- Evaluative Objectives: Assess the effectiveness of interventions or programs.
Remember:
- Each research objective should contribute to achieving the overall research goal.
- Well-defined research objectives help maintain focus throughout the research process and
guide the selection of research methods, data collection, analysis, and interpretation of
Results.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM, SETTING UP THE RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS, SOURCES

OF HYPOTHESIS AND ITS UTILITIES::
TECHNIQUE INVOLVED IN DEFINING A PROBLEM
=>
(i) Statement of the problem in a general way: First of all the problem should be stated in a
broad general way, keeping in view either some practical concern or some scientific or
intellectual interest. For this purpose, the researcher must immerse himself thoroughly in the
subject matter concerning which he wishes to pose a problem. In the case of social research, it
is considered advisable to do some field observation and as such the researcher may undertake
some sort of preliminary survey or what is often called pilot survey. Then the researcher can
himself state the problem or he can seek the guidance of the guide or the subject expert in
accomplishing this task.The problem stated in a broad general way may contain various
ambiguities which must be resolved by cool thinking and rethinking over the problem. At the
same time the feasibility of a particular solution has to be considered and the same should be
kept in view while stating the problem.
(ii) Understanding the nature of the problem: The next step in defining the problem is to
understand its origin and nature clearly. The best way of understanding the problem is to
discuss it with those who first raised it in order to find out how the problem originally came about
and with what objectives in view.
(iii) Surveying the available literature: The researcher must be well-conversant with relevant
theories in the field, reports and records as also all other relevant literature. He must devote
sufficient time in reviewing research already undertaken on related problems. This is done to
find out what data and other materials, if any, are available for operational purposes. “Knowing
what data are available often serves to narrow the problem itself as well as the technique that
might be used.”
(iv) Developing the ideas through discussions: Discussion concerning a problem often
produces useful information. Various new ideas can be developed through such an exercise.
Hence, a researcher must discuss his problem with his colleagues and others who have enough
experience in the same area or in working on similar problems. This is quite often known as an
experience survey.
(v) Rephrasing the research problem: Finally, the researcher must sit to rephrase the
research problem into a working proposition. Once the nature of the problem has been clearly
understood, the environment (within which the problem has got to be studied) has been defined,
discussions over the problem have taken place and the available literature has been surveyed
and examined, rephrasing the problem into analytical or operational terms is not a difficult task.

SETTING UP THE RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS:

A research hypothesis is a testable statement that predicts the relationship between two or
more variables. It's an educated guess about the outcome of the study. Hypotheses are
formulated based on existing knowledge, theories, observations, and logical reasoning.
Researchers use hypotheses to guide their research, design experiments, collect data, and
analyze results.
SOURCES OF HYPOTHESIS:
1. Theoretical Frameworks:Existing theories in the field can suggest hypotheses.
Researchers may build on or challenge established theories by formulating hypotheses that
extend or modify existing knowledge.
2. Previous Research: Findings from prior research can inspire new hypotheses.
Replicating or extending previous studies can lead to new insights.
3.Observations: Observations of real-world phenomena might prompt researchers to
formulate hypotheses about why certain patterns exist or how variables might be related.
4. Logical Reasoning:Researchers use logic and reasoning to develop hypotheses that
make sense within the context of the research problem.
UTILITIES OF HYPOTHESES
The Hypotheses play a significant role in scientific studies. The following are some of the
important role, which are given below
1.Helps in the testing of the theories.
2.Serves as a great platform in the investigation activities.
3.Provides guidance to the research work or study.
4.Hypothesis sometimes suggests theories.
5.Helps in knowing the needs of the data.
6. Explains social phenomena.
7.Develops the theory.
8. Also acts as a bridge between the theory and the investigation.
9.Provides a relationship between phenomena in such a way that it leads to the empirical
testing of the relationship.
10 Helps in knowing the most suitable technique of analysis. Helps in the determination of the
most suitable type of research.

UNIT 4: REVIEW OF LITERATURE (10 HRS.)

CONCEPT OF REVIEW OF LITERATURE:

A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources (such as books, journal articles, and
theses) related to a specific topic or research question .It is often written as part of a thesis,
dissertation, or research paper, in order to situate your work in relation to existing knowledge.

The purpose of a literature review is to:

There are several reasons to conduct a literature review at the beginning of a research project:
 To familiarize yourself with the current state of knowledge on your topic
 To ensure that you’re not just repeating what others have already done
 To identify gaps in knowledge and unresolved problems that your research can address
 To develop your theoretical framework and methodology
 To provide an overview of the key findings and debates on the topic
Writing the literature review shows your reader how your work relates to existing research and
what new insights it will contribute.

PROCESS OF REVIEWING BOOKS:

Reviewing books involves critically evaluating and summarising the content of a book to
provide insights, analysis, and recommendations to potential readers. Book reviews can
vary in length and style, but they generally follow a structured process. Here's a step-by
step guide:

1. Begin with a brief summary of the book

This is probably the best way to introduce any review because it gives context. But make sure to
not go into too much detail. Keep it short and sweet since an official summary can be found
through a quick google search!

2. Pick out the most important aspects of the book

I usually break this down with character, world-building, themes, and plot. But this might vary
between books, genres, and your tastes!

Dedicate a paragraph to each of these important aspects, discussing how well the author dealt
with it, along with what you enjoyed and what you didn’t enjoy.

3. Include brief quotes as examples

Including quotes is always a great idea, because it gives examples for everything that you’re
saying! If your review talks about a character being particularly witty, a witty line from the
character lets your readers see exactly what kind of witty character you’re dealing with here.

But be careful: lengthy quotes can take up big chunks of space and overpower your review.
Short quotes will usually get your points across while letting your work shine through.

4. Write a conclusion that summarises everything

Like your introduction, keep your conclusion short and sweet! It should bring up the main points
of your review, along with your overall opinion of the book.

5. Find similar books

A great way to wrap up a review is to find similar books to the one you’re reviewing. So you can
say, “if you were a fan of X book, I think you’ll definitely like this one!”You can also be more
specific, looking at the exact things that might make two books similar. So you can suggest
something like…“if you liked that the main character in X book was a kick-ass superhero, then
you’ll love the main character of this book!”

6. Give it a star rating

A star rating is obviously encouraged in a lot of review sites, but they’re not necessary! If you do
want to give a star rating, you can go the conventional “out of five/ten” route.

PROCESS OF REVIEWING JOURNAL ARTICLES

Much like all other reviews, a journal article review evaluates strengths and weaknesses of a
publication. A qualified paper writer must provide the reader with an analysis and interpretation
that demonstrates the article’s value. Here's a
general process for reviewing journal articles:
1. Receive the Manuscript:
As a reviewer, you will receive a manuscript from the journal's editor. This manuscript will
usually include the article itself, along with any supplementary materials provided by the
author.
2. Initial Assessment:Read the title, abstract, and keywords to get an overview of the article's
topic and scope. Evaluate whether the article aligns with your expertise and whether you can
provide a fair review.
3. Read the Article:
Carefully read the entire article. Pay attention to the introduction, research question or
hypothesis, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion sections.
4. Take Notes:
As you read, take notes on the article's key points, methodology, findings, strengths,
weaknesses, and any areas that need clarification.
5. Evaluate the Methodology:
Assess the research design, data collection methods, and analysis techniques used in the
study. Consider whether the methodology is appropriate for the research question and
whether the procedures are well-explained.
6. Assess the Contribution:
Evaluate the article's contribution to the field. Consider whether the research adds new
insights, challenges existing theories, or provides practical implications.
7. Review the Writing and Structure:
Assess the clarity, coherence, and organization of the article. Evaluate whether the writing
effectively communicates the research and whether the article follows a logical structure.
8. Analyze the Results and Discussion:
Evaluate the interpretation of results and the discussion of their implications. Consider
whether the conclusions drawn are supported by the data and whether alternative
explanations have been considered.
9. Address Ethical Considerations:
Check for any ethical issues, such as plagiarism, conflicts of interest, or proper citation of
sources. Ensure that the research adheres to ethical guidelines.
10. Draft Your Review:
Write a detailed review that includes an introduction, a summary of the article's content,
an evaluation of its strengths and weaknesses, and suggestions for improvement.
11. Provide Constructive Feedback:
Offer specific, constructive feedback to the author. Point out areas that need clarification,
suggest additional analyses or considerations, and provide recommendations for
enhancing the research.
12. Check for Objectivity:
Ensure that your review is unbiased and focused on the quality of the research. Avoid
personal comments or assumptions about the author.
13. Submit Your Review:
Follow the journal's submission guidelines to submit your review to the editor. Some
journals have specific review forms, while others might require you to submit your feedback
via email.
14. Revise and Finalize:
Review your own review before submission to ensure clarity and accuracy. Proofread for
grammar and spelling errors.
Remember that the goal of peer review is to maintain the integrity and quality of academic
research. Your thorough and thoughtful review contributes to the scholarly community by
helping authors improve their work and assisting editors in making informed decisions
about publication.
PROCESS OF REVIEWING REPORTS::
Reviewing reports involves assessing the content, structure, and quality of a report to
determine its accuracy, relevance, and credibility. Reports can come from various sources,
such as research organisations, government agencies, businesses, and non-profit
organisations. Here's a process you can follow when reviewing reports:
1. Understand the Purpose and Audience:
Before you begin reviewing the report, understand its purpose and the intended
audience. This will help you assess whether the report meets its intended goals and
effectively communicates to its target readers.
2. Read the Executive Summary:
Start by reading the executive summary, if available. This section provides a condensed
overview of the report's key findings, recommendations, and main points.
3. Examine the Report Structure:
Assess the report's overall structure, including its introduction, methodology, findings,
conclusions, and recommendations. Check if the report follows a logical sequence and if
each section is clearly labelled.
4. Evaluate the Methodology:
If the report includes research or data analysis, evaluate the methodology used. Check if
the methods are appropriate, transparent, and capable of producing reliable results.
5. Assess Data and Evidence:
Examine the data, statistics, graphs, and other evidence presented in the report. Ensure
that the information is accurate, relevant, and properly cited. Look for any biases or gaps in
the data.
6. Analyze the Findings:
Evaluate the report's findings in relation to its research question or objectives. Consider if
the findings are supported by the evidence presented and if they are presented clearly.
7. Review Conclusions and Recommendations:
Check if the report's conclusions logically follow from the findings. Assess the quality and
practicality of the recommendations provided. Do they address the issues identified in the
report?
8. Look for Bias and Objectivity:
Analyze the report for any biases or subjectivity. Consider the sources of funding or
potential conflicts of interest that might influence the report's content.
9. Consider Relevance and Timeliness:
Determine if the information in the report is current and relevant to the current context.
Outdated or irrelevant information can diminish the report's value.
10. Cross-Reference with Other Sources:
If possible, cross-reference the information in the report with other reputable sources.
This can help verify the accuracy of the information presented.
11. Evaluate Writing Style and Clarity:
Assess the report's writing style for clarity, coherence, and readability. Look for jargon or
technical terms that might be unclear to the intended audience.
12. Provide Constructive Feedback:
If your review is intended for the report's authors, provide constructive feedback on areas
that need improvement. Focus on specific issues and suggest possible solutions.
13. Consider the Implications:
Think about the implications of the report's findings and recommendations. Consider
how the report might impact decision-making, policies, or practices.
14. Summarize Your Review:
Write a summary of your review that highlights the report's strengths and weaknesses.
Include a balanced assessment of its overall quality.
15. Reflect on the Report's Usefulness:
Consider how the report contributes to the field, addresses the research question, or
informs the intended audience. Assess whether the report meets its objectives.
Remember that your review should be objective, thorough, and focused on evaluating the
report's content and quality. Your assessment can help others make informed judgments
about the report's credibility and relevance.

CITATION AND REFERENCING, AN OVERVIEW OF DIFFERENT FORMATS OF CITATION

AND REFERENCING::
==>>>Citation and referencing are essential components of academic and scholarly writing.
They involve acknowledging the sources you have used in your work and providing
information that allows readers to locate those sources. Proper citation and referencing
ensure that you give credit to the original authors, avoid plagiarism, and allow others to
verify your information and build upon your work.
There are different citation styles, each with its own set of rules and formats for citing and
referencing sources. The most commonly used citation styles include:
APA (American Psychological Association):
Widely used in the social sciences, psychology, education, and business.
Uses an author-date format for in-text citations: (Author, Year).
Includes a detailed reference list at the end of the document, providing full publication
information.
MLA (Modern Language Association):
Commonly used in the humanities, literature, and arts fields.
Uses an author-page format for in-text citations: (Author Page).
Provides a Works Cited page at the end of the document, listing full source details.
CITATION OF BOOKS::
In APA (American Psychological Association) style, the format for citing books depends on
whether you are citing a book with a single author, multiple authors, an edited book, or a
book with a corporate author. Here are the basic formats for each case:
1. Book with a Single Author:
Last Name, First Initial. (Year). *Title of Book*. Publisher.
Example:
Smith, J. R. (2020). *The Power of Habit: Why We Do What We Do in Life and Business*.
Random House.
2. Book with Multiple Authors:
Last Name, First Initial., & Last Name, First Initial. (Year). *Title of Book*. Publisher.
Example:Johnson, M. A., & Williams, L. K. (2018). *Introduction to Psychology*. Pearson.
3. Book with an Editor:
Last Name, First Initial. (Ed. or Eds.). (Year). *Title of Book*. Publisher.
Example:
Brown, P. J. (Ed.). (2015). *Contemporary Art: A Critical Reader*. Routledge.
4. Book with a Corporate Author:
Name of Organization. (Year). *Title of Book*. Publisher.
Example:
American Heart Association. (2021). *Heart Disease Prevention and Treatment*. Wiley.

CITATION OF REPORT IN APA::

In APA style, the format for citing a report varies depending on whether the report has an
individual author or organisation as the author. Here are the basic formats for both cases:
1. Report with an Individual Author:
Author, A. A. (Year). Title of the report (Report No. xxx). Publisher.
Example:
Smith, J. D. (2022). Climate change impacts on coastal ecosystems: A comprehensive
assessment (Report No. 567). Environmental Research Institute.
2. Report with an Organization as the Author:
Organisation Name. (Year). Title of the report (Report No. xxx). Publisher.
Example:
National Institute of Health. (2019). Advances in Medical Research: A Comprehensive
Review (Report No. 123). Health Publications.
CITATION OF JOURNAL ARTICLE IN APA::
In APA style, citing a journal article follows a specific format. Here's how you would cite a
journal article using APA format:
Basic Format:
Author(s). (Year). Title of the article. Title of the Journal, Volume(Issue), Page range. DOI or
URL (if available)
Example:
Smith, J. A., Johnson, L. B., & Williams, R. C. (2022). The impact of social media on
interpersonal relationships. Journal of Communication Studies, 15(3), 45-60. doi:10.1234/jcs
123456
Explanation:
- Author(s): List the last name and initials of all authors (up to seven authors). If there are
more than seven authors, list the first six followed by an ellipsis (...) and then the last
author's name.
- Year: Provide the publication year in parentheses.
- Title of the article: Capitalise the first letter of the first word and proper nouns. Italicise the
title.
- Title of the Journal: Italicise the journal title. Capitalise the first letter of each major word.
- Volume and Issue: Italicise the volume number, and include the issue number in
parentheses (if applicable).
- Page range: Provide the inclusive page numbers of the article.
- DOI: If the article has a Digital Object Identifier (DOI), include it. The DOI provides a
permanent link to the article.
- URL: If a DOI is not available, you can include the URL of the journal's homepage or the full
URL of the article.
Remember to follow the specific punctuation and capitalization rules of APA style. If the
journal article doesn't have a DOI or URL, you can omit that part from the citation. If the
journal article has more than one author, use an ampersand (&) before the last author's
name in the reference list and in-text citations.

PREPARATION OF A SMALL REPORT BASED ON REVIEW WORK ON SOME RELEVANT

SPECIFIC TOPIC
Title: The Benefits of Regular Exercise
Introduction
In this report, we will explore the numerous advantages of engaging in regular exercise.
From physical health to mental well-being, exercise plays a vital role in maintaining a
healthy and balanced lifestyle.
Physical Benefits
Regular exercise offers a range of physical benefits that contribute to overall well-being:
1. Weight Management: Engaging in physical activity helps burn calories, aiding in
weight loss and preventing obesity.
2. Improved Cardiovascular Health: Exercise strengthens the heart and improves
circulation, reducing the risk of heart diseases.
3. Muscle Strength and Flexibility:Different forms of exercise promote muscle
development and flexibility, enhancing mobility and reducing the risk of injuries.
4. Bone Health: Weight-bearing exercises help in building and maintaining strong
bones, reducing the risk of osteoporosis.
5. Enhanced Endurance: Regular exercise improves endurance levels, allowing
individuals to engage in daily activities with less fatigue.
Mental and Emotional Benefits
Exercise also has significant positive effects on mental and emotional well-being:
1. Stress Reduction:Physical activity stimulates the release of endorphins, the "feel
good" hormones, which reduce stress and improve mood.
2. Anxiety and Depression Management: Exercise can alleviate symptoms of anxiety
and depression by promoting neural growth and reducing inflammation.
3. Cognitive Function: Physical activity has been linked to improved cognitive function,
including better memory, focus, and decision-making.
4. Boosted Self-Esteem: Achieving fitness goals enhances self-confidence and self
esteem, leading to a positive self-image.
Social Benefits
Engaging in exercise can also have social advantages:
1. Opportunities for Social Interaction: Group activities such as fitness classes or team
sports provide opportunities to meet new people and build social connections.
2. Shared Goals:Exercising with friends or in a group setting fosters a sense of
camaraderie and teamwork as participants work toward shared fitness goals.
Practical Tips for Getting Started
For beginners looking to incorporate regular exercise into their routine, here are a few tips:
1. Start Slowly: Begin with low-impact activities and gradually increase intensity toprevent
injuries.
2. Set Realistic Goals: Set achievable fitness goals that align with your current fitness
level and desired outcomes.
3. Variety is Key: Explore different types of exercise (e.g., aerobic, strength training,
flexibility exercises) to keep the routine interesting and prevent boredom.
4. Stay Consistent:Consistency is key to reaping the benefits of exercise. Aim for a
regular schedule that fits your lifestyle.
5. Listen to Your Body: Pay attention to your body's signals. Rest when needed and
don't push yourself too hard, especially in the beginning.
Conclusion
In conclusion, regular exercise offers a multitude of benefits that encompass physical
health, mental well-being, and social connections. By incorporating exercise into our daily
lives, we can enhance our overall quality of life and promote a healthier future.
second example::
Work report example
The following is an example of a work report you can use as a guide when writing your own
report in the workplace:
November 5, 2023
Prepared by: Sally Smith
ABC Company
This report is to provide an update on the handbook project that is due on December 5. This
project will result in the creation of a new employee handbook that will include updated
rules and regulations as well as the approved increase of paid time off.This handbook will
increase employee awareness of workplace expectations as well as inform them of the new
benefits that have recently been implemented.
As of this date, I have completed the following for the handbook project:
* Verified all information that will be in the handbook with upper management and HR
* Drafted a table of contents
* Formatted layout of handbook
* Composed the first 12 pages of the handbook
Tasks to be completed by November 12, 2023:
* Compose five more pages of the handbook
* Proofread and edit all pages that have been completed up to this date
* Have the manager of HR
* read the handbook content to ensure accuracy
Conclusion
The handbook project is on track to be completed by the scheduled date. This project
currently has no obvious obstacles or issues, but if they should arise they will be promptly
Addressed.

UNIT 5: METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUES (7 HRS.)::

1. Write the meaning of Data collection. Discuss the prerequisites/preliminary of Data

Collection.
Ans:- The Data collection is a process by which the researcher collects the information from
all the relevant sources to find out the answers to the research problem.Data are the numerical
facts, which originate from the operation of counting or enumerating. For any statistical
investigation first stage is data collection and the basic the problem is to collect data relating to
the subject matter.Data collection is the first and essential step in statistical investigation.
Therefore, before collection of data, the investigator should be very careful in time of Data
collection.
Pre-requisites/ preliminater of Data collection:

Ans:- The following points are to be carefully considered before starting the work of
collection of data:
(i) Objective of the study:- It is not possible to collect appropriate data if the objective of the
study is unknown. It is therefore essential to determine the objective beforehand. If the
objectives are clear, it becomes quite clear to decide the exact nature of the data to be
collected.
(ii) Scope of enquiry:- Scope of the enquiry relates to the coverage area of the study. Scope
indicates the geographical region to be covered by the enquiry and the types of data to be
collected from that region.
(iii) Source of information:- Once the objective and scope of the enquiry are finalised, one
has to determine the source of data from which the required information is obtained.
Generally there are two sources of data:
a) Primary source of data
b) Secondary source of data
(iv) Statistical units:- The next important step is to clearly defined the statistical unit in
which the data are to be measured and collected. In many cases, source standard units like
metres, kilometres, hours etc.
(v) Methods of data collection:- The data may be collected by census or by sampling
method. The choice between the census and sampling method is determined by the
circumstances, objective, scope, accuracy, require resources and time available with the
investigator.
(vi) Degree of accuracy:- An investigator should decide in advance the degree of accuracy
He wants to achieve. He can then collect the data accurate enough to serve his purpose.
(vii)Types of enquiry:- Before collecting data, the type of enquiry to be used should be
decided. The following are the types of enquiry used in statistical investigation.
a)Direct and indirect
b)Official, semi-official and non-official
c)Original and repetitive
d)Confidential etc.

2. What are the types of Data?

Ans:- On the basis of sources of data there are two types of data:
i) Primary data:- The data which is collected for the first time by investigator is called
primary data. The primary data are original in nature and main purpose is to decrease the
complexity of an enquiry and provide accurate information. This type of data are also
known as first hand data.
ii) Secondary data:- These data are those data which has already collected by someone but
are used by someone other investigators called secondary data. The primary data for one
a person can be secondary data for someone else.

3. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PRIMARY DATA AND SECONDARY DATA::

Basis for comparison:: Meaning,Originality,Cost effectiveness, Collection time,Available
in,Accuracy and Reliability,Source
Primary Data and Secondary Data::
1.Primary data refers to the first hand data gathered by the researcher.
1.Secondary data means data collected by someone else earlier.
2.The data are original in nature.
2.The data lacks originality and they are second hand data3.Expensive
3.Economical
4.It takes a long time for collection of data.
4.It takes a short time for collection of data.
5.It is available in raw or crude form.
5.It is available in a refined form.
6.It has more accurate data and reliable data.
6.The data is less accurate and less reliable.
7.Survey, observation, interview, experiments, questionnaire etc.
7.Government publication, website, books, journal, articles etc.

4. EXPLAIN THE METHODS OF COLLECTING PRIMARY DATA.

Ans:- The different methods of collecting primary data are presented below:
COLLECTION OF PRIMARY DATA
We collect primary data during the course of doing experiments in an experimental research but
in case we do research of the descriptive type and perform surveys, whether sample surveys or
census surveys, then we can obtain primary data either through observation or through direct
communication with respondents in one form or another or through personal interviews. * This,
in other words, means that there are several methods of collecting primary data, particularly in
surveys and descriptive research. Important ones are:
(i) Direct personal interview:- In this method, the investigator himself goes to field and
makes an inquiry to collect data from respondents directly. The investigator asks the
questions relating to his enquiry and collecting information given by the respondents.
Merits
a)The data collected are more reliable and accurate.
b)Information can be cross examined whether they are giving correct answers or not.
Demerits
a)This method is time consuming.
b) This method is not suitable for a wide coverage area.
c) This method is very expensive.

(ii) Indirect oral interview:- In this method, the investigator doesn’t make any contact with
the persons who are directly concerned with the problem under study. The required data
are obtained by interviewing 3rd person who are in touch with the field enquiry and they
are given for a short list of questions.
Merits
a) This method is suitable for wide area coverage.
b) This method is cheaper and less time consuming.
Demerits
a) The selected informant may not be appropriate people to answer the questions.
b) The result of the investigation may be blessedly biassed.

(iii) Information through local correspondents:- In this method, the investigator or agency
has local agents in different parts of the field enquiry known as correspondents. They
collect information in their own ways and send them to central office where the data are
processed and analysed. This method is generally used by newspapers.
Merits
a) This method is suitable for wide area coverage.
b) It saves time and money.
Demerits
a) This method may not be reliable.
b) Information through this method may not be uniform.

(iv)Mailed Questionnaire Method:- In this method, a questionnaire relating to the enquiry is

prepared. It contains a list of questions and some space for the answers to be filled by the
respondents. Copies of the questionnaires are sent by post to various persons at different
places. They are requested to answer all the questions and return it by post within a
specified time.
Merits
a) This method is most economical in terms of money, time and manpower.
b) This method is suitable for a wide coverage area.
Demerits
a) This method is not suitable if the informants are illiterate.
b) Questionnaire may not be completely filled.

(v) Schedule send through enumerator:- In this method, a list of questions is prepared and
send to informants through a person known as enumerators. The enumerator contacts the
informant, gets replies to the questions contained in the questionnaire and fills it up.
Merits
a) Useful in case of illiterate informants.b) The information is more reliable.
Demerits
a) This method requires more time.
b) If the schedule is wrongly designed, the required information may not be collected.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN QUESTIONNAIRES AND SCHEDULES

1.The questionnaire is generally sent through mail to informants to be answered as specified
in a covering letter, but otherwise without further assistance from the sender. The schedule
is generally filled out by the research worker or the enumerator, who can interpret questions
when necessary.
2. To collect data through questionnaire is relatively cheap and economical since we have to
spend money only in preparing the questionnaire and in mailing the same to respondents.
Here no field staff is required. To collect data through schedules is relatively more expensive
since considerable amount of money has to be spent in appointing enumerators and in
importing training to them. Money is also spent in preparing schedules.
3.The success of questionnaire method lies more on the quality of the questionnaire itself, but
In the case of schedules much depends upon the honesty and competence of enumerators.
4. In case of questionnaire, it is not always clear as to who replies, but in case of schedule the
identity of the respondent is known.
5. The questionnaire method is likely to be very slow since many respondents do not return
the questionnaire in time despite several reminders, but in case of schedules the information
is collected well in time as they are filled in by enumerators.

5.EXPLAIN THE DIFFERENT METHODS OF SAMPLING.

Ans:- There are various types of sampling but all types are not equally appropriate and
important for a particular type of enquiry. The important methods of sampling are as
follows:
i. Probability sampling
ii. Non-probability sampling
(i) Probability sampling
Ans:- Probability sampling is a scientific method of selecting samples according to some law
of chance in which each unit in the population has some potentiality of being selected in
the sample. There are various types of probability sampling which are discussed below:
A) Simple random sampling:- In this method, samples are drawn one by one with some
chance of being selected. Simple random sampling can be administered by lottery method
or by using a table of random numbers.
Merits
a) It is free from human bias.
b) The maximum information can be obtained in a short period of time at minimum cost.
Demerits
a) The sample drawn by this method may not represent the population if the sample size is
not sufficiently large.
b) The sample drawn by this method may be highly scattered. So, it may be quite time
consuming and costly.

B) Stratified sampling:- In this method of sampling the entire population is divided into two
or more homogeneous groups known as strata. Then a simple random sampling procedure
is used to draw samples from each stratum.
Merits
a) It gives more representative sample
b) The stratification reduces the cost and administration difficulties.
Demerits
a) The process of stratification takes more time and money.
b) It may give the wrong conclusion.
C) Systematic sampling:- In systematic sampling, first the units are arranged into some
systematic order they a sample unit is selected by using simple random sampling
technique. After this, the remaining sample units are selected of a definite interval. The
sampling interval is calculated as:
Suppose there are 40 students In a class and we want to take a sample of 5 students using
systematic sampling. Then for interval we can use
=8
It means we have to select one student out of every 8 student. The first person is selected
by using simple random sampling and then remaining will be selected systematically of 8th
interval. So, if 1st selected student is 4th student then
* 4th
* 12th (4+8)
*20th (12+8)
*28th (20+8)
*36th (28+8)
Merits
a) This method is simple and systematic.
b) Takes less time and labour.
Demerits
a) It requires complete information about the population.
b) Sample may not represent the population if the population listing is biassed.

D) Cluster sampling:- In cluster sampling, the entire population is divided into groups
called clusters and then select a random sample of these clusters. The clusters are divided
in such a way that the characteristics within the clusters are a heterogeneous and between
the clusters are homogeneous.In cluster sampling, the term cluster refers to a natural but
heterogeneous and complete
grouping of the members of the population.
Merits
a) It is easier, faster and more convenient than stratified.
b) It is useful when the population under study is infinite.
Demerits
a) The reliability decreases with the increase in cluster.
b) Not appropriate when population size is large.

E) Multi-stage sampling:- In this method, sampling is done in various stages. Multistage

sampling is a further development of cluster sampling.
Merits
a) More flexible than other methods
b) This technique reduces operational cost.
Demerits
a) It is less efficient than others.
b) Errors are likely to be larger than other methods.
(ii) Non-probability sampling
Ans:- A sampling procedure in which the sample is choose on the basis of convenience,
personal judgement etc. of the investigator. There are various types of non-probability
sampling they are:
a) Judgement sampling:- In this method, the desired sample is drawn on the basis of
judgement of investigator. He selects those units which are appropriate for the objective of
the survey.
b) Quota sampling:- This method is used when data is large and making investigation
concerning public opinion. A definite quota is fixed for each social class, different age
groups, different regions etc. for interviews within that quota. From each group, Sampling
involves the representation of the entire population and each group has its proper
representation in the sample.
c) Convenience sampling:- Convenience sampling is the method of selecting sample not by
judgement of the investigator but because the elements in a fraction of the population can
be reached conveniently.

6.WHAT IS A SAMPLE FRAME?

The sample frame is the specific source of respondents that is used to draw the sample
from. This could be a map from which specific areas are outlined, a list of registered voters,
a phonebook, or another source which specifically defines who will and will not be included
in the sample. The sample frame should be representative of the sample universe, which is
the broader definition of the sample makeup.
For example, if a researcher is looking to study attitudes of students at a specific university, the
definitions may look like the below:
Sample Universe: Current students at University X
Sample Frame: List of all 10,000 currently enrolled students provided by the admissions
office
Sample: 400 randomly selected students from the list of enrolled students who
participate in the research study.

Question.No 7. Basic for Comparison Sampling Error and Non-Sampling Error

1.Meaning
a)Sampling error is a type of error, occurs due to the sample selected does not perfectly
represents the population of interest.
a)An error occurs due to sources other than sampling, while conducting survey activities is
known as non sampling error.
2.Cause
b).Deviation between sample mean and population mean
b)Deficiency and analysis of data
3.Type
c)Random
c)Random or Non-random
4.Occurs
d)Only when a sample is selected.
d)Both in sample and census.
5.Sample size
e)Possibility of error reduced with the increase in sample size.
e)It has nothing to do with the sample size

HOW TO PREPARE A QUESTIONNAIRE::

The purpose of a questionnaire can be to gain feedback, understand opinions, or collect
data for research within a period.
Steps involved in Questionnaire Design
1.Identify the main objective of your questionnaire
Your questionnaire should be aligned with your main objective. It will ensure that the
responses help you with further analysis. Avoid reusing existing questionnaires, as they won't
do justice to your result.
2. Define your focus group
It's logical to share the questionnaire with a specific group of people who understand the
questions better. This focus group can maximise the robustness of your study by providing
compelling insights and feedback.
3. Prepare a list of questions
Your questions should be phrased smartly, avoiding any ambiguities or misunderstandings.
A misread or misinterpreted question will hamper your data, as the respondent is very likely
to mark an option randomly. The use of technical terms or jargon is a big no as it can create
confusion.
4. Design the order and overall layout of the questionnaire
Questionnaire design is vital to ensure that adequate data is collected. The response sheet
can be generalised and interpreted easily. Optimised flow and overall layout of the
questionnaire after learning from multiple drafts will help. Check for smooth question
transitions. Check for proper placements of specific questions.
5. Pre-test your questionnaire
This step is of utmost importance for the factors like optimization and evaluation. Run a
questionnaire pilot by testing it with a few people from your target respondents. It'll help
you identify the issues with readability, engagement, or overall structuring.
6. Response Analysis:You have the data, and with the in-depth analysis, you can start drawing
out conclusions to your research. You must analyse the pilot data to ensure that you receive the
desired results.

TIPS FOR A GOOD QUESTIONNAIRE:

1.Keep in mind the underlying assumption
The questionnaire should be prepared to target a particular group of people and then be
shared with them for your response sheet to be practical. Make sure it is crystal clear, valid,
and engaging.
2.The format of the questions depends on the method
It depends on the method of analysis you'll be using later on. For example, you'll need to
use a different format between questionnaires with a statistical and probability method.
3.Avoid open-ended questions if possible
If you can categorise your options, always opt for the closed-ended questions. You'll get a
faster and better response from the respondents.
4.Write down a research question and focus group
Spend quality time finding out the questions that cover all the subsections and angles of
your research. Narrow down your target group and note down all the attributes of that
group: demographic, level of education, or income. Always conduct background research
before starting with your survey. It'll help you understand the results of previous
researchers and avoid any pitfalls.
5.One or more time frames
Now that you have covered your questions across all dimensions and focus groups, you'll
need to evaluate the number of time frames to conduct the survey. Some surveys are done
among different group clusters, which will require multiple time frames.
6.Try to minimise the number of questions
Don't stuff in many questions in the questionnaire; rather than focus on the quality. Peoplewill
be reluctant to see numerous questions. Also, you'll end up duplicating questions that
are almost similar in meaning, thereby creating confusion.
7.Add some questions to capture attributes
After preparing a minimum set of questions, add some additional questions to capture the
attributes of your focus group. Avoid any leading questions or non-neutral terminologies
that can make respondents biased.
8.Do not use the 'Other' category
The respondents to any questionnaire are always in a hurry to complete it. Here, an option
like 'Other' allows avoiding the question and moving on to the next one. All in all, it doesn't
add any value to your response sheet.
9.Put open-ended questions first
If you need to ask open-ended questions, position them at the beginning. Again, make sure
such questions are minimal. Otherwise, there's always a chance of the respondents
skipping the survey.
10.Always pre-test
Conduct a survey pre-test among a small circle of your target or ordinary group. It'll help
you get a glance at the effectiveness of your questionnaire. It'll also allow you to make
amendments, if any, before conducting the actual survey.

SAMPLE SIZE ESTIMATION FOR ESTIMATING MEAN AND PROPORTION:::

THIS IS FOR PROPORTION::
A study found that 73% of prekindergarten children ages 3 to 5 whose mothers had a
bachelor’s degree or higher were enrolled in early childhood care and education programs.
a)How large a sample is needed to estimate the true proportion within 3% with 95%
confidence?
b)How large a sample is needed if you had no prior knowledge of the proportion?
Solution
a) Use n=p∗⋅q∗(zα/E)^2 = 0.73⋅0.27(1.96/0.03)^2 = 841.3104. Since we cannot have 0.3104
of a person, we need to round up to the next whole person and use n = 842. Don’t rounddown
since we may not get within our margin of error for a smaller sample size.
b) Since no proportion is given, use the planning value of p* = 0.5.
n=0.5⋅0.5(1.96/0.03)^2=1067.1111
Round up and use n=1,068

UNIT 6: MEASUREMENT AND SCALING (3 HRS.):::

Concept of Measurement:
Measurement is the process of assigning numbers to objects or events in a systematic way,
with the aim of quantifying certain attributes or characteristics. It enables researchers and
scientists to make objective comparisons and draw meaningful conclusions. Proper
measurement involves ensuring that the assigned numbers accurately represent the
properties being measured.
For example, in the context of height, measurement assigns numbers to individuals that
reflect their height accurately.
Different Levels of Measurement:
There are four primary levels of measurement, each with distinct characteristics and
implications for how data can be analysed and interpreted. These levels are often referred
to as "scales of measurement."
1. Nominal Scale:
- This is the simplest level of measurement.
- Data are categorised into distinct categories or groups without any inherent order or
ranking.
- Examples include gender (male, female) or colours (red, blue, green).
2. Ordinal Scale:
- In this level, data can be ordered or ranked, but the intervals between categories are not
uniform or meaningful.
- The exact differences between values are not known.
- Examples include education levels (high school, bachelor's, master's) or customer
satisfaction ratings (poor, fair, good).
3. Interval Scale:
- Data on an interval scale have meaningful intervals between values, but there is no true
zero point.
- Ratios of values are not meaningful.
- Temperature measured in Celsius or Fahrenheit is an example of an interval scale.
4. Ratio Scale:
- The highest level of measurement, the ratio scale has meaningful intervals and a true
zero point.
- Ratios between values are meaningful.
- Examples include height, weight, age, and income.

It's important to note that higher levels of measurement include the properties of lower
levels. For instance, ratio scale data also possess the properties of interval, ordinal, and
nominal scales. Understanding the concept of measurement and the levels of measurement is
vital for accurately collecting, analysing, and interpreting data in research and scientific
endeavours.

MEASUREMENT OF VARIABLES IN LIKERT SCALES

A Likert scale is a unidimensional scale that researchers use to collect respondents’
attitudes and opinions. Researchers often use this psychometric scale to understand the
views and perspectives towards a brand, product, or target market.
Example of a Likert scale:
For example, the researcher uses a Likert Scale question as a dichotomous option question
to collect product feedback. He/ she frames the question as “The product was a good
purchase,” with the options listed as agree or disagree. The other way to frame this
question is, “Please state your satisfaction level with the products,” and the options range
from very dissatisfied to very satisfied.
When responding to an item on the Likert Scale, the user responds based explicitly on their
agreement or disagreement level. These scales allow for determining the level of
agreement or disagreement of the respondents. The Likert scale assumes that the strength
and intensity of the experience are linear. Therefore it goes from a complete agreement to a
complete disagreement, assuming that attitudes can be measured.

RELIABILITY VS VALIDITY :
What does it tell you?
1.The extent to which the results can be reproduced when the research is repeated under the
same conditions.
1.The extent to which the results really measure what they are supposed to measure.
How is it assessed?
2.By checking the consistency of results across time, across different observers, and across
parts of the test itself.
2.By checking how well the results correspond to established theories and other measures of
the same concept.
How do they relate?
3.A reliable measurement is not always valid: the results might be reproducible, but they’re
not necessarily correct.
3.A valid measurement is generally reliable: if a test produces accurate results, they should be
reproducible.

UNIT 7: DATA ANALYSIS AND REPORT PREPARATION (10 HRS.)::

The data, after collection, has to be processed and analysed in accordance with the outline laid
down for the purpose at the time of developing the research plan. This is essential for a
scientific study and for ensuring that we have all relevant data for making contemplated
comparisons and analysis. Technically speaking, processing implies editing,coding,classification
and tabulation of collected data so that they are amenable to analysis. The term analysis refers
to the computation of certain measures along with searching for patterns of relationship that
exist among data-groups.

PROCESSING OPERATIONS
1. Editing: Editing of data is a process of examining the collected raw data (specially in surveys)
to detect errors and omissions and to correct these when possible. As a matter of fact, editing
involves a careful scrutiny of the completed questionnaires and/or schedules. Editing is done to
assure that the data are accurate, consistent with other facts gathered, uniformly entered, as
completed as possible and have been well arranged to facilitate coding and tabulation.
2. Coding: Coding refers to the process of assigning numerals or other symbols to answers so
that responses can be put into a limited number of categories or classes. Such classes should
be appropriate to the research problem under consideration. They must also possess the
characteristic of exhaustiveness (i.e., there must be a class for every data item) and also that of
mutual exclusively which means that a specific answer can be placed in one and only one cell in
a given category set. Another rule to be observed is that of unidimensionality which means that
every class is defined in terms of only one concept.
3. Classification: Most research studies result in a large volume of raw data which must be
reduced into homogeneous groups if we are to get meaningful relationships. This fact
necessitates classification of data which happens to be the process of arranging data in groups
or classes on the basis of common characteristics. Data having a common characteristic are
placed in one class and in this way the entire data get divided into a number of groups or
classes.
4. Tabulation: When a mass of data has been assembled, it becomes necessary for the
researcher to arrange the same in some kind of concise and logical order. This procedure is
referred to as tabulation. Thus, tabulation is the process of summarising raw data and displaying
the same in compact form (i.e., in the form of statistical tables) for further analysis. In a broader
sense, tabulation is an orderly arrangement of data in columns and rows.
Tabulation is essential because of the following reasons.
1. It conserves space and reduces explanatory and descriptive statements to a minimum.
2. It facilitates the process of comparison.
3. It facilitates the summation of items and the detection of errors and omissions.
4. It provides a basis for various statistical computations.

ELEMENTS/TYPES OF ANALYSIS

Correlation analysis studies the joint variation of two or more variables for determining the
amount of correlation between two or more variables.

Multivariate analysis which may be defined as “all statistical methods which simultaneously
analyse more than two variables on a sample of observations”. Usually the following analyses
are involved when we make a reference of multivariate analysis:

Multivariate analysis of variance (or multi-ANOVA): This analysis is an extension of two-

way ANOVA, wherein the ratio of among group variance to within group variance is worked out
on a set of variables.