UNIT ONE

The Nature and Uses of History

1.1.Nature of History
The term history derived from the Greek word Istoria, meaning “inquiry” or “an account of
one’s inquiries.” The first use of the term is attributed to one of the ancient Greek historians,
Herodotus (c. 484–425 B.C.E.), who is often held to be the “father of history.” In ordinary
usage, history means all the things that have happened in the human past. The past signifies
events, which have taken place and the facts of the past, which are kept in writing. More
specifically, the distinction is between what actually happened in the past or that part which
exists independently of the historian and still a waits to be recorded and the accounts of the
past provided by historians, that is, ‘history’. Historians apply their expertise to surviving
records and write history in the form of accounts of the past. Academically, history can be
defined as an organized and systematic study of the past. The study involves the discovery,
collection, organization, and presentation of information about past events.

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Evidently, what actually happened in the past is almost infinite. Historians select which
topics and problems they wish to study, as do natural scientists. In this regard, the major
concern of history is the study of human society and its interaction with the natural
environment, which is also the subject of study by many other disciplines. What differentiates
history from other disciplines is that while the latter study the interaction between humans
and their environment in the present state, history studies the interaction between the two in
the past within the framework of the continuous process of change taking place in time.
Because of the longevity of that time, historians organize and divide the human past into
discrete periods after identifying significant developments in politics, society, economy,
culture, environment etc. through the rigorous study of documents and artifacts left by people
of other times and other places. Then they give a label to each period to convey the key
characteristics and developments of that era. Accordingly, history is conventionally divided
into ancient, medieval and modern history. This is what we call periodization in history; one
of the key characteristics of the discipline.
When historians talk about continuities or persisting patterns, they are not implying that a
particular pattern applied to everyone in the world or even in a particular country or region.
Nor are they claiming that absolutely nothing changed in the pattern they are describing. All
aspects of human life that is, social, cultural, economic, and political in the past have been
changing from time to time; and none of them were practiced in exactly the same way in the
lifetime of our ancestors. Nevertheless, some things stay more or less the same for long
periods, since few things ever change completely. For example, we continue to speak the
languages of our ancestors; follow their beliefs and religious practices; wear the costumes
they were wearing; continue to practice their agricultural or pastoral ways of life; maintain
the fundamental components or structures of their social organization. In the same vein, the
basic fabric of society in Ethiopia and the Horn remains similar and continues to have special
characteristics.
B. Uses of History
Peoples live in the present and plan for and worry about the future. History, however, is the
study of the past. Why bother with the past while living in the present and anticipating what
is yet to come? This section discusses the uses of history in the context of the relationship
between the past and the present.
I. History Helps Better Understand the Present
History is the only significant storehouse of information available for the examination and
analysis of how people behaved and acted in the past. People need to produce some sort of

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account of their past because it is difficult to understand problems that face humanity and
society today without tracing their origins in the past. Put differently, knowledge of relevant
historical background is essential for a balanced and in-depth understanding of many current
world situations.

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II. History Provides a Sense of Identity
Knowledge of history is indispensable to understand who we are and where we fit in the
world. As memory is to the individual, history is to the society. An individual without
memory finds great difficulty in relating to others and making intelligent decisions. A society
without history would be in similar condition. It is only through sense of history that
communities define their identity, orient themselves, and understand their relationships with
the past and with other societies.
III. History Provides the Basic Background for Other Disciplines
Historical knowledge is extremely valuable in the pursuit of other disciplines such as
literature, art, philosophy, religion, sociology, political science, anthropology, economics, etc.
IV. History Teaches Critical Skills
Studying history helps students to develop key research skills. These include how to find and
evaluate sources; how to make coherent arguments based on various kinds of evidence and
present clearly in writing. These analytical and communication skills are highly usable in
other academic pursuits. Gaining skills in sorting through diverse interpretations is also
essential to make informed decisions in our day-to-day life.
V. History Helps Develop Tolerance and Open-Mindedness
Most of us have a tendency to regard our own cultural practices, styles, and values as right
and proper. Studying different societies in the past is like going to a foreign country, which
contributes to free ourselves from some of our inherent cultural provincialism. By studying
the past, students of history acquire broad perspectives that give them the range and
flexibility required in many life situations.
VI. History Supplies Endless Source of Fascination
Exploring the ways people in distant ages constructed their lives offers a sense of beauty and
excitement, and ultimately another perspective on human life and society.
To conclude, history should be studied because it is essential to the individual and the society.
Only through studying history can we grasp how and why things change; and only

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through history are we able understand what elements of a society persist despite change.
Aesthetic and humanistic goals also inspire people to study the past, far removed from
present-day utility. Nevertheless, just as history can be useful, it can also be abused. Such
abuses come mainly from deliberate manipulation of the past to fit current political agenda.
In such cases, history is written backwards. That is, the past is described and interpreted to
justify the present. While personal biases are not always avoidable, a historian is different
from a propagandist in that the former takes care to document his judgment and assertions so
that they can be subjected to independent and external verification. That said, how do
historians study and interpret the past and the changes that took place in periods during which
they have not lived?
1.2. Sources and Methods of Historical Study
Historians are not creative writers like novelists. Therefore, the work of historians must be
supported by evidence arising from sources. Sources are instruments that bring to life what
appear to have been dead. It is said that “where there are no sources, there is no history”.
Sources are, therefore, key to the study and writing of history.
Historical sources are broadly classified into two types: Primary and Secondary. Primary
sources are surviving traces of the past available to us in the present. They are original or first
hand in their proximity to the event both in time and in space. Examples of primary sources
are manuscripts (handwritten materials), diaries, letters, minutes, court records and
administrative files, travel documents, photographs, maps, video and audio visual materials,
and arti facts such as coins, fossils, weapons, utensils, and buildings. Secondary sources, on
the other hand, are second-hand published accounts about past events.
They are written long after the event has occurred, providing an interpretation of what
happened, why it happened, and how it happened, often based on primary sources. Examples
of secondary sources are articles, books, textbooks, biographies, and published stories or
movies about historical events. Secondary materials give us what appear to be finished
accounts of certain historical periods and phenomena. Nevertheless, no history work can be
taken as final, as new sources keep coming to light. New sources make possible new
historical interpretations or entirely new historical reconstructions.

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Oral data constitute the other category of historical sources. Oral sources are especially
valuableto study and document the history of non-literate societies. They can also be used to
fill missing gaps and corroborate written words. In many societies, people transmit
information from one generation to another, for example, through folk songs and folk sayings.
This type of oral data is called oral tradition. People can also provide oral testimonies or
personal recollections of lived experience. Such source material is known as oral history.
For the history of Ethiopia and the Horn, historians use a combination of the sources
described above. However, whatever the source of information-primary or secondary, written
or oral- the data should be subjected to critical evaluation before it is used as evidence.
Primary sources have to be verified for their originality and authenticity because sometimes
primary sources like letters may be forged. Secondary sources have to be examined for the
reliability of their reconstructions. Oral data may lose its originality and authenticity due to
distortion through time. Therefore, it should be crosschecked with other sources such as
written documents to determine its veracity or authenticity. In short, historians (unlike
novelists) must find evidence about the past, ask questions of that evidence, and come up
with explanations that make sense of what the evidence says about the people, events, places
and time periods they study about.
1.3. Historiography of Ethiopia and the Horn
Historiography can be defined as the history of historical writing, studying how knowledge of
the past, either recent or distant, is obtained and transmitted. People have had some sense of
the past perhaps since the beginning of humanity. Yet historiography as an intentional
attempt to understand and represent descriptions of past events in writing has rather a briefer
career throughout the world. The organized study and narration of the past was introduced by
ancient Greek historians notably Herodotus (c. 484–425 B.C.E.) and Thucydides (c.455-400
B.C.E.) The other major tradition of thinking and writing about the past is the Chinese. The
most important early figure in Chinese historical thought and writing was the Han dynasty
figure Sima Qian (145–86 B.C.E.). Despite such early historiographical traditions, history
emerged as an academic discipline in the second half of the nineteenth century first in Europe
and subsequently in other parts of the world including the US. The German historian,

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Leopold Von Ranke (1795–1886), and his colleagues established history as an independent
discipline in Berlin with its own set of methods and concepts by which historians collect
evidence of past events, evaluate that evidence, and present a meaningful discussion of the
subject. Ranke’s greatest contribution to the scientific study of the past is such that he is
considered as the “father of modern historiography.”
Historiography of Ethiopia and the Horn has changed enormously during the past hundred
years in ways that merit fuller treatment than can be afforded here. This section is devoted to
exploring significant transformations in historical writing. In order to appreciate twentieth-
century historiography of the region, it is first necessary to examine earlier forms of
historiography (historical writing). The earliest known reference that we have on history of
Ethiopia and the Horn is the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea, written in the first century A.D by
an anonymous author. Another document describing Aksum’s trade and the then Aksumite
king’s campaigns on both sides of the sea is the Christian Topography composed by Cosmas
Indicopleustes, a Greek sailor, in the sixth century A.D.
Inscriptions aside the earliest written Ethiopian material dates from the seventh century A.D.
The document was found in Abba Gerima monastery in Yeha. This was followed by a
manuscript discovered in Haiq Istifanos monastery of present day Wollo in the thirteenth
century A.D. The value of manuscripts is essentially religious. Yet, for historians, they have
the benefit of providing insights into the country’s past. For example, the manuscript cited
above contains the list of medieval kings and their history in brief. The largest groups of
sources available for medieval Ethiopian history are hagiographies originating from
Ethiopian Orthodox Church. Invariably written in Ge’ez, an important function of
hagiographies is enhancing the prestige of saints. Yet other related anecdotes are also
introduced, and often discussed in detail such as the development of the church and the state
including territorial conquests by reigning monarchs. A parallel hagiographical tradition
existed among Muslim communities of the country. One such account offers tremendous
insight into the life of a Muslim saint, Shaykh Ja’far Bukko of Gattira, in present day Wollo,
in the late nineteenth century. Besides the saint’s life, the development of indigenous Islam
and contacts between the region’s Muslim community and the outside world are some of the
issues discussed in this document.

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Ethiopia had also an indigenous tradition of history writing called chronicles. Chronicles in
the ancient Ethiopian Ge’ez tongue first appeared in the fourteenth century and continue
(sometimes in Amharic) into the early twentieth century. Kings or their successors entrusted
the writing of chronicles to court scribes or clergymen of recognized clerical training and
calligraphic skills. The earliest and the last of such surviving documents are the Glorious
Victories of Amde-Tsion and the Chronicle of Abeto Iyasu and Empress Zewditu respectively.
Chronicles incorporate both legends and facts-past and contemporary about the monarch’s
genealogy, upbringing, military exploits, piety and statesmanship. Chronicles are known for
their factual detail and strong chronological framework, even if it would require considerable
labor to convert their relative chronology to an absolute one. They are also averse to
quantification. Furthermore, chronicles explain historical events mainly in religious terms;
they offer little by way of social and economic developments even in the environs of the
palace. However, in conjunction with other varieties of written documents, such as
hagiographies and travel accounts by foreign observers, chronicles can provide us with a
glimpse into the character and lives of kings, their preoccupations and relations with
subordinate officials and, though inadequately, the evolution of the Ethiopian state and
society.
Written accounts of Arabic-speaking visitors to the coast also provide useful information on
various aspects of the region’s history. For example, al-Masudi and Ibn Battuta described the
culture, language and import-export trade in the main central region of the east African coast
in the tenth and in the fourteenth centuries respectively. For the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries we have two documents composed by Yemeni writers who were eyewitnesses to
the events they described. The first document titled Futuh al Habesha was composed by
Shihab ad-Din, who recorded the conflict between the Christian kingdom and the Muslim
principalities in the sixteenth century. Besides the operation of the war including the conquest
of northern and central Ethiopia by Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi, the document
describes major towns and their inhabitants in the southeastern part of Ethiopia, although the
discussion abruptly ends in 1535. The other first-hand account was left to us by Al-Haymi,
who led a Yemeni delegation in 1647 to the court of Fasiledes (r. 1632-67).

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Other materials that appeared in the sixteenth century include Abba Bahrey’s Geez script on
the Oromo written in 1593. Notwithstanding its limitations, the document provides us with
first-hand information about the Oromo population movement including the Gada System.
The contribution of European missionaries and travelers to the development of Ethiopian
historiography is also significant. From the early sixteenth until the late nineteenth centuries,
missionaries (Catholics and Protestants) came to the country with the intention of staying,
and who, nevertheless, maintained intimate links with Europe. Thus, the missionaries’
sources provide us with valuable information covering a considerable period. Some of the
major topics covered by these sources include religious and political developments within
Ethiopia, and the country’s foreign relations. An example of such account is The Prester John
of the Indies, composed by a Portuguese priest, Francisco Alvarez who accompanied the
Portuguese mission to the court of Lebne-Dengel in 1520. In addition to the missionary
sources, travel documents had important contribution to the development of Ethiopian
historiography. One example of travel documents is James Bruce’s Travels to Discover the
Source of the Nile. Like other sources, however, both the missionaries and travelers’
materials can only be used with considerable reservations and with care for they are socially
and politically biased.
Foreign writers also developed interest in Ethiopian studies. One of these figures was a
German, Hiob Ludolf (1624-1704). Ludolf was the founder of Ethiopian studies in Europe in
the seventeenth century. He wrote Historia Aethiopica (translated into English as A New
History of Ethiopia). Ludolf never visited Ethiopia; he wrote the country’s history largely
based on information he collected from an Ethiopian priest named Abba Gorgorios (Abba
Gregory) who was in Europe at that time. In the nineteenth century, August Dillman
published two studies on ancient Ethiopian history. Compared to Ludolf, Dillman
demonstrated all markers of objectivity in his historical research endeavors.
Historical writing made some departures from the chronicle tradition in the early twentieth
century. This period saw the emergence of traditional Ethiopian writers who made conscious
efforts to distance themselves from chroniclers whom they criticized for adulatory tone when
writing about monarchs.

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The earliest group of these writers include Aleqa Taye Gebre- Mariam, Aleqa Asme Giorgis
and Debtera Fisseha-Giorgis Abyezgi. Later, Negadrases Afework Gebre-Iyesus and Gebre-
Hiwot Baykedagn joined them. Unlike chroniclers, these writers dealt with a range of topics
from social justice, administrative reform and economic analysis to history. Taye and
Fisseha-Giorgis wrote books on the history of Ethiopia while Asme produced a similar work
on the Oromo people. Notwithstanding his other works, Afework wrote the first Amharic
novel, Tobiya, in Ethiopian history while Gebre-Hiwot has Atse Menilekna Ityopia (Emperor
Menilek and Ethiopia) and Mengistna Yehizb Astedader (Government and Public
Administration) to his name. The most prolific writer of the early twentieth century Ethiopia
was, however, Blatten Geta Hiruy Wolde-Selassie. Hiruy published four major works namely
Ethiopiana Metema (Ethiopia and Metema), Wazema (Eve), Yehiwot Tarik (A Biographical
Dictionary) and Yeityopia Tarik (A History of Ethiopia). In contrast to their predecessors,
Gebre-Hiwot and Hiruy exhibited relative objectivity and methodological sophistication in
their works. Unfortunately, the Italian occupation of Ethiopia interrupted the early
experiment in modern history writing and publications.
After liberation, Tekle-Tsadik Mekuria formed a bridge between writers in pre-1935 and
Ethiopia professional historians who came after him. Tekle-Tsadik has published about eight
historical works. Tekle-Tsadik made better evaluation of his sources than his predecessors.
Another work of importance in this period is Yilma Deressa’s Ye Ityopiya Tarik Be’asra
Sidistegnaw Kifle Zemen(A History of Ethiopia in the Sixteenth Century). The book addresses
the Oromo population movement and the wars between the Christian kingdom and the
Muslim sultanates as its main subjects. Blatten Geta Mahteme-Selassie Wolde-Meskel also
contributed his share. Among others, he wrote Zikre Neger. Zikre Neger is a comprehensive
account of Ethiopia’s prewar land tenure systems and taxation. Another work dealing
specifically with aspects of land tenure is left to us by Gebre-Wold Engidawork. Another
writer of the same category was Dejazmach Kebede Tesema. Kebede wrote his memoir of the
imperial period, published as Yetarik Mastawesha in 1962 E.C.
The 1960s was a crucial decade in the development of Ethiopian historiography for it was in
this period that history emerged as an academic discipline. The pursuit of historical studies as
a full-time occupation began with the opening of the Department of History in 1963 at the
then haile Selassie I University (HSIU).

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The production of BA theses began towards the end of the decade. The Department launched
its MA and PhD programs in 1979 and 1990 respectively. Since then researches by faculty
(both Ethiopians and expatriates) and students have been produced on various topics.
Although mainly a research organization, the Institute of Ethiopian Studies (IES) is the other
institutional home of professional historiography of Ethiopia. The IES was founded in 1963.
Since then the Institute housed a number of historians of whom the late Richard Pankhurst,
the first Director and founding member of the Institute is worthy of note here. Pankhurst’s
prolific publication record remains unmatched. He has authored or co-authored twenty-two
books and produced several hundred articles on Ethiopia. Since its foundation, the IES has
been publishing the Journal of Ethiopian Studies for the dissemination of historical research.
The Institute’s library contains literary works of diverse disciplines and has its fair share in
the evolution of professional historiography of Ethiopia.
The professionalization of history in other parts of the Horn is a post-colonial phenomenon.
With the establishment of independent nations, a deeper interest in exploring their own past
quickly emerged among African populations, perhaps stimulated by reactions to decades of
education in an alien imperial historiography. With this came an urgent need to recast the
historical record and to recover evidence of many lost pre-colonial civilizations. The
decolonization of African historiography required new methodological approach (tools of
investigation) to the study of the past that involved a critical use of oral data and tapping the
precepts of ancillary disciplines like archaeology, anthropology and linguistics. At the same
time, European intellectuals’ own discomfort with the Euro-centrism of previous scholarship
provided for the intensive academic study of African history, an innovation that had spread to
North America by the 1960s. Foundational research was done at the School of Oriental and
African Studies (SOAS) in London and the Department of History at the University of
Wisconsin-Madison. Francophone scholars have been as influential as Anglophones. Yet
African historiography has not been the sole creation of interested Europeans. African
universities have, despite the instabilities of politics and civil war in many areas, trained their
own scholars and sent many others overseas for training who eventually published numerous
works on different aspects of the region’s history.

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1.4. The Geographical Context
The term “Ethiopia and the Horn” refers to that part of Northeast Africa, which now contains
the countries of Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia. The region consists chiefly of
mountains uplifted through the formation of the Great Rift Valley. The Rift Valley is a fissure
in the Earth’s crust running down from Syria to Mozambique and marking the separation of
the African and Arabian tectonic plates. The major physiographic features of the region are a
massive highland complex of mountains and plateaus divided by the Great Rift Valley and
surrounded by lowlands, semi-desert, deserts and tropical forests along the periphery. The
diversity of the terrain led to regional variations in climate, natural vegetation, soil
composition, and settlement patterns. As with the physical features, people across the region
are remarkably diverse: they speak a vast number of different languages, profess to many
distinct religions, live in various types of dwellings, and engage in a wide range of economic
activities. At the same time, however, peoples of the region were never isolated; they
interacted throughout history from various locations. Thus, as much as there are many factors
that make people of a certain area unique from the other, there are also many areas in which
peoples of Ethiopia and the Horn share common past.
The history of Ethiopia and the Horn has been shaped by contacts with others through
commerce, migrations, wars, slavery, colonialism, and the waxing and waning of state
systems. Yet, the evolution of human history owed much to geographical factors notably
location, landforms, resource endowment, climate and drainage systems which continue to
impact, as incentives and deterrents, the movement of people and goods in the region. In this
section, we will study the impact that the region’s geography has on the way people live and
organize themselves into societies.
Spatial location in relationship to other spaces and locations in the world is one geographical
factor that has significant bearing on the ways in which history unfolds. Ethiopia and the
Horn lies between the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden and Indian Ocean on the one hand, and the
present-day eastern frontiers of Sudan and Kenya on the other. Since early times, the Red Sea
and the Gulf of Aden linked Northeast Africa to the Eastern Mediterranean, the Near and
Middle East, India, and the Far East. Likewise, the Indian Ocean has linked East Africa to the
Near and Middle East, India and the Far East.

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Another element of geographical factor that had profound impact on human history is
drainage system. Ethiopia and the Horn has five principal drainage systems. These are the
Nile River, Gibe/Omo–Gojeb, Genale/Jubba-Shebele, the Awash River, and the Ethiopian
Rift Valley Lake systems. Flowing from Uganda in the south to the Sudan in the north, the
White Nile meets the Blue Nile (Abay in Ethiopia that starts from the environs of Tana Lake)
in Khartoum and eventually, drains into the Mediterranean Sea through Egypt. The Awash
River System is entirely confined to Ethiopia and links the cool rich highlands of Central
Ethiopia with the hot, dry lowlands of the Danakil Depression. The Ethiopian Rift Valley
Lakes System is a self-contained drainage basin, and includes a string of lakes stretching
from Lake Ziway in the north to Lake Turkana (formerly known as Rudolf) on the Ethio-
Kenyan border. The Gibe /Omo–Gojeb River System links southern Ethiopia to the semi-
desert lowlands of northern Kenya. The Shebele and Genale rivers originate in the Eastern
highlands and flow southeast toward Somalia and the Indian Ocean. Only the Genale (known
as the Jubba in Somalia) makes it to the Indian Ocean; the Shebele disappears in sand just
inside the coastline.The above watersheds are very important in the life and history of the
peoples inhabiting the region. Besides providing people with the source of their livelihood,
the drainage systemsfacilitated the movement of peoples and goods across diverse
environments, resulting in the exchange of ideas, technology, knowledge, cultural
expressions, and beliefs. Thus, studying the drainage systems of Ethiopia and the Horn is
crucial for proper understanding of the relationships of the peoples living within the river
basins mentioned previouslyEthiopia and the Horn can be divided into three major distinct
environmental zones. The vast Eastern lowland covers the narrow coastal strip of
northeastern Eritrea, widens gradually and descends southwards to include much of lowland
Eritrea, the Sahel, the Danakil Depression, the lower Awash valley, and the arid terrain in
northeast of the Republic of Djibouti.It then extends to the Ogaden, the lower parts of
Hararghe, Bale, Borana, Sidamo and the whole territory of the Republic of Somalia. There is
no much seasonal variation in climatic condition in this zone.
Hot and dry conditions prevail year-round along with periodic monsoon winds and irregular
(little) rainfall except in limited areas along the rivers Awash, Wabe-Shebele and
Genale/Jubba that traverse the region and a few offshore islands in the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden
and Indian Ocean that are inhabited by people closely related to those of immediate mainland
districts. Much of the lowland territories are covered by shrub and bush as its major
vegetation.

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Immediately to the west of and opposite to the eastern lowland region forms the highland
massif that starts from northern Eritrea and continues all the way to southern Ethiopia. The
eastern extension of the highland massif consists the Arsi, Bale and Hararghe plateau. The
major divide between the western and eastern parts of this zone is the Rift Valley. The major
physiographic features of the zone are complex of mountains, deep valleys, and extensive
plateaus.
Further to the west, along the western foothills or on the periphery of the plateau and on
borderlands of the Sudan stretching from north to south are hot lowlands that were
characterized in earlier times by thick forests chiefly on the banks of the Nile and its
tributaries.
Despite the varied physical environments discussed above, the countries of the Horn of
Africa are, for the most part, linguistically and ethnically linked together as far back as
recorded history goes. Population movements had caused a continuous process of interaction,
Create a very complex picture of settlement patterns. The high degree of interaction and the
long common history of much of the population had weakened ethnic dividing lines in large
parts of the region. Linguistic and cultural affinities are therefore as important as ethnic
origin in the grouping of the population.
Hot and dry conditions prevail year-round along with periodic monsoon winds and irregular
(little) rainfall except in limited areas along the rivers Awash, Wabe-Shebele and
Genale/Jubba that traverse the region and a few offshore islands in the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden
and Indian Ocean that are inhabited by people closely related to those of immediate mainland
districts. Much of the lowland territories are covered by shrub and bush as its major
vegetation.
Immediately to the west of and opposite to the eastern lowland region forms the highland
massif that starts from northern Eritrea and continues all the way to southern Ethiopia. The
eastern extension of the highland massif consists the Arsi, Bale and Hararghe plateau. The
major divide between the western and eastern parts of this zone is the Rift Valley. The major
physiographic features of the zone are complex of mountains, deep valleys, and extensive
plateaus.
Further to the west, along the western foothills or on the periphery of the plateau and on
borderlands of the Sudan stretching from north to south are hot lowlands that were
characterized in earlier times by thick forests chiefly on the banks of the Nile and its
tributaries.

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Despite the varied physical environments discussed above, the countries of the Horn of
Africa are, for the most part, linguistically and ethnically linked together as far back as
recorded history goes. Population movements had caused a continuous process of interaction,
Create a very complex picture of settlement patterns. The high degree of interaction and the
long common history of much of the population had weakened ethnic dividing lines in large
parts of the region. Linguistic and cultural affinities are therefore as important as ethnic
origin in the grouping of the population.

UNIT TWO

2. PEOPLES AND CULTURES IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN (4 hours)

2.1. Human Evolution
Ethiopia and the Horn Region is referred to as the cradle of humankind. It is also a region
where early civilizations including food production, making tools and religious practices
were initiated. These developments contributed to the social evolutions, economic formations,
and socio-cultural and political settings. This unit traces human evolution and the Neolithic
Revolution and then describes languages and people’s settlement along with cultural settings
of the region. The purpose is to show that the region is home to diverse peoples, cultures
(languages, religion, customs…) and economic activities.
Human evolution accounts only a fraction of history of the globe that had been formed
through gradual natural process since about (circa/c.) 4. 5 billion years before present (B. P.)
The earliest life came into being between 3 and 1 billion years B. P. Blue green algae, small
plants, fishes, birds and other small beings emerged at c. 800 million years B. P. Primates
branched of placental mammal stream as of 200-170 million years B. P. and then some
primates developed into Pongidae (such as gorilla, chimpanzee, orangutan, gibbon etc) while
others evolved into Hominidae (human ancestors). Archeological evidences suggest that East
African Rift Valley is the cradle of humanity. Evidences related to both biological and
cultural evolution have been discovered in the Lower Omo and Middle Awash River valleys
both by Ethiopian and foreign scholars. A fossil named Chororapithecus dated 10 million B.
P. was unearthed in Anchar (in West Hararghe) in 2007. Ardipithicus ramidus kadabba
(dated 5.8-5.2 million years BP) was discovered in Middle Awash. Ardipithicus ramidus
(dated 4. 2 million B.P.) was discovered at Aramis in Afar in 1994. Other Australopithecines
were uncovered at Belohdelie (dated back 3.6 million years B. P.) in Middle Awash. A three
years old child’s fossil named asAustralopithecus afarensis, Selam, dated to 3.3 million years

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B.P was also discovered at#Dikika, Mille, Afar in 2000. Another Australopithecus afarnesis
(Lucy/Dinkinesh, dated c.3.18 million years B. P.) with 40% complete body parts, weight
30kg, height 1.07 meterswith a pelvis looks like bipedal female was discovered at Hadar in
Afar in 1974 A. D.
Fossil named Australopithecus anamensis was discovered around Lake Turkana. An eco-fact
named as Australopithecus garhi (means surprise in Afar language) dated to 2.5 million years
B.P was discovered at Bouri, Middle Awash, between 1996 and 1999.
The development of the human brain was the main feature of the next stage of human
evolution, which produced the genus Homo, believed to have emerged 2-2.5 million years
B.P. Different evidences of the genus homo have been recovered in different parts of
Ethiopia and the Horn. A partial skull of a fossil named as Homo habilis, which is derived
from Latin terms "Homo" (human being) and "Habilis" (skillful use of hands), dated 1.9
million years B. P. has been found in the Lower Omo. A fossil named Homo erectus
(walking upright, dated 1. 6 million years B. P.) was discovered at Melka Kunture, Konso
Gardula and Gadeb with 900-1100 cc brain size. Homo erectus seems to have originated in
Africa and then spread out to the rest of the world. Skeleton of Archaic Homosapiens
(knowledgeable human being, dated 400, 000 years B.P.) named Bodo with brain size of
1300-1400cc was discovered in Middle Awash. Fossils of Homo sapiens sapiens (100, 000
years B.P.) were discovered at Porc Epic near Dire Dawa, and Kibish around Lower Omo (in
1967). In 2004, Kibish fossils were re-dated to 195, 000 B. P, the oldest date in the world for
modern Homo sapiens. Homo sapiens idaltu, found in Middle Awash in 1997, lived about
160, 000 years B.P.
Cultural evolution is related to technological changes that brought socio-economic
transformation on human life. It can be conventionally grouped in to Stone Age, Bronze Age
and Iron Age. Stone tools had been the first technologies to be developed by human beings.
By taking their features, ways and period of production, stone tools can be grouped in to
Mode I (Olduwan, which was named based on the first report made at Olduvai Gorge,
Tanzania), Mode II (Acheulean, named after the first report at St. Acheul, France) and Mode
III (Sangoon). The Mode I stone tools are mainly characterized by crude and mono-facial
styles, and were produced by the direct percussion. Mode II stone tools were produced by
indirect percussion, by using hand-ax or hammer, and mainly characterized by bifacial,
pointed and convex features. Mode III stone tools are characterized by flexible and fine form
of production by the use of obsidian.

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Examples of the above types of stone tools have been found in Ethiopia and the Horn.
Fossilized animal bones (3. 4 million years B. P.) were found with stone-tool-inflicted marks
on them (the oldest evidence of stone tool in the world) at Dikika in 2010. Artifact findings
suggest that Olduwan tools made and used by Homo habilis were discovered near Gona
(dated 2.52 million years B.P. in 1992) and at Shungura in Afar. Homo erectus produced
Acheulean tools dated back to 1.7.million years B.P, invented fire and started burial practice.
Acheulian tools (over a million years old) were found at Kella, Middle Awash in 1963. Homo
sapiens produced Sangoon tools that trace back up to 300,000 years B. P. Gademotta site in
central Ethiopian Rift Valley has been dated back to 200, 000 B. P. Other sites such as
Gorgora, Ki’one and Yabello in Ethiopia and Midhidhishi and Gudgud in Somalia have
offered noteworthy information about Stone Age communities.
The period of usage of stone tools is divided into sub-periods. The first, the Paleolithic (Old
Stone Age, from 3.4 million to 11, 000 years B. P.) was the period when human being
sheltered in caves, developed language, and used stone , bone, wood, furs, and skin materials
to prepare food and clothing. There was sex-age labor division with able-bodied males as
hunters of fauna, and children and females as gatherers of flora. Mesolithic (Middle Stone
Age /11, 000-10,000 B. P.) was transition between Paleolithic and Neolithic (New Stone Age
/10, 000-6, 000 B.P).
2.2. Neolithic Revolution
During the Neolithic period human beings transformed from mobile to sedentary way of life.
This was a radical shift involving changes from hunting and gathering to the domestication of
plants and animals. Climatic change and increased hunter-gatherers’ population resulted in
the declining number of animals and availability of plants. As food gatherers were already
aware of growing cycle of most grass types, they began to grow those, which were most
common and yielded seeds that are more edible. The big animals, which depended on dense
bushes for sustenance, were reduced by hunting while smaller animals that were easy to
domesticate were easily domesticated. and animals that people were able to domesticate
easily were smaller ones.
The process of domestication took place independently in the various parts of the world. In
Ethiopia and the Horn chiefly in the more elevated and wetter-parts, people cultivated plants
including Teff (Eragrotis teff), dagussa (Eleusine coracana), nug (Guzotia abyssinica), enset
(Ensete ventricosum) etc. The domestication of enset plant (Ensete edule) reduced shifting
cultivation (continuous clearing of new plots), slowing down soil exhaustion.

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The discovery of polished axes, ceramics, grinding stones, beads, stone figures and animal
remains in sites like Emba-Fakeda around Adigrat in Tigray as well as Aqordat and Barentu
in Eritrea evinces the existence of Neolithic material culture. The Gobodara rock shelter near
Aksum has provided us agricultural stone tools. Remains associated with domesticated cattle,
chickpeas and vegetables have been excavated from Lalibela Cave on the southeastern shore
of Lake Tana. Stone tools used for cutting grass and grass like plants as well as rock
paintings of domesticated animals have been found at Laga Oda rock shelter near Charchar.
Evidence for domesticated cattle also comes from around Lake Basaqa near Matahara. Playa
Napata and Kado in the Sudan, Cyrenaica in Libya and Futajalon in West Africa were among
known places of domestication of animals like Nidamawa and Zebu (Bos indicus) cattle that
in due course expanded to Ethiopia and the Horn.
2.3. The Peopling of the Region
2.3.1. Languages and Linguistic Processes
Ethiopia and the Horn in general is marked by ethnic and linguistic diversity. There are about
90 languages with 200 dialects in Ethiopia and the Horn. Beneath this apparent diversity,
there is some degree of unity. Linguists classify languages of Ethiopia and the Horn into two
major language super families. These are Afro-Asiatic and Nilo-Saharan.
 Afro-Asiatic: this super family is sub-divided into the following families:
 Cushitic: linguists divided this language family into four branches:
 Northern: is represented by Beja, spoken in northwestern Eritrea bordering the
Sudan.
Central: Agaw includes Awign, Kunfel, Qimant; Hamtanga and Bilen.
 Eastern: this includes diversified linguistic groups like Afar, Ale, Arbore, Baiso, Burji,
Darashe, Dasanech, Gedeo, Hadiya, Halaba, Kambata, Konso, Libido, Mosiye, Oromo, Saho,
Sidama, Somali, Tambaro, Tsemai, etc.
Southern: represented by Dhalo in Kenya and Nbugua in Tanzania.
 Semitic: is divided into two:
North: Ge'ez, Rashaida (spoken around Eritrea-Sudanese border); Tigre (spoken in Eritrean
Lowland); Tigrigna (spoken in highland Eritrea and Tigray).
South: is further divided into two
Transverse: Amharic, Argoba, Harari, Silte, Wolane and Zay.
Outer: Gafat (extinct), Gurage and Mesmes (endangered).

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  Omotic: Anfillo, Ari, Banna, Basketo, Bench, Boro-Shinasha, Chara, Dawuro, Dime,
Dizi, Gamo, Gofa, Hamer, Karo, Keficho, Konta, Korete, Male, Melo, Oyda, Sezo,
Shekkacho, Sheko, Wolayta, Yem, Zayse etc.
B. Nilo-Saharan: Anywa, Berta, Gumuz, Kacipo-Balesi, Komo, Kunama, Kwama, Kwegu,
Majang, Mi'en, Murle, Mursi, Nara, Nu’er, Nyangatom, Opo, Shabo, Suri and Uduk.
Language classification did not remain static. Factors like population movements, warfare,
trade, religious and territorial expansion, urbanization etc. have resulted in intense linguistic
processes that forced languages to be affected. In this process, some languages died out or
have been in danger of extinction while others thrived over time.
2.3.2. Settlement Patterns
A settlement pattern, the distribution of peoples across the landscape, is the results of long
historical processes in northeast Africa. In some areas, settlement was dense and in other
areas sparse. Some people inhabited extensive highlands and others the lowlands. Based on
historical linguistic and history of inter-peoples relations, studies indicate that environmental,
socio-economic, and political processes significantly shaped and reshaped the spatial
distribution of peoples in the region.
Since early times, the Cushitic and Semitic peoples had inhabited the area between the Red
Sea in the east and Blue Nile in the west from where they dispersed to different directions. In
due course, the Cushites have evolved to be the largest linguistic group in Ethiopia and the
Horn and have also spread over wide areas from Sudan to Tanzania. Similarly, the Semitic
peoples spread over large area and eventually settled the northern, north central, northeastern,
south central and eastern parts of Ethiopia and the Horn. The Semites are the second majority
people next to the Cushites.
Except the Shinasha, who live in Benishangul-Gumuz and the South Mao in Wallagga, the
majority of Omotic peoples have inhabited southwestern Ethiopia along the Omo River
basin. Yet, in the earlier times, they had extended much further to the north.
In the west, the Nilotes are largely settled along the Ethiopia-Sudanese border although some
of the Chari-Nile family inhabited as far as southern Omo. The latter are identified as the
Karamojo cluster living around Turkana Lake along Ethio-Kenyan border.
2.3.3. Economic Formations
The domestication of plants and animals gave humanity two interdependent modes of life:
agriculture and pastoralism. While there may be pure pastoralists, it is very rare to think of a
farmer without a head of cattle or two. Likewise, in Ethiopia and the Horn, these two forms

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of livelihood have coexisted and quite often intermingled . Topographic features and climatic
conditions largely influenced economic activities in Ethiopia and the Horn.
A predominantly pastoral economy has characterized the eastern lowland region since early
periods. Pastoral economy namely the production of camel, goat, and cattle has been the
most common economic practice among the Afar, Saho and Somali as well as Karayu and
Borana Oromo. While the Afar and Karrayu have depended on the Awash River, the Somali
have owed a great deal to Wabi Shebelle and Genale (Jubba) Rivers.
The plateaus have sustained plough agriculture for thousands of years supporting sizable
populations. Majority of the populations were engaged in mixed farming. It is here that
sedentary agriculture had been started and advanced at least since 10, 000 years B. P. by the
Cushites, Semites and Omotic groups. The major economic activity of the Omotic has been
mixed farming and trade in northern Omo while southern Omo have predominantly practiced
pastoralism and fishing. Many of the Omotic groups have also been famous in metallurgy,
weaving and other crafts.
In the sparsely populated western lowland region, the dominant economic formations were
pastoralism, shifting agriculture, fishing, apiculture and hunting. For instance, sorghum,
millet, cotton and other crops have been largely cultivated in the lowlands along
EthioSudanese border since antiquity. The Nilotes along the Blue Nile and Baro-Akobo
Rivers have been shifting cultivators where sorghum has been a staple food. Among majority
Nilotic communities, cattle have high economic and social values. Berta and other Nilotes
had trade and other social contacts with northern Sudan.
2.4. Religion and Religious Processes
2.4.1. Indigenous Religion This includes a variety of religious beliefs and practices, which
are native to the region and have been followed by the local people since ancient times. A
distinctive mark of indigenous religion is belief in Supreme Being, but special powers are
attributed to natural phenomena, which are considered sacred. Spiritual functionaries officiate
over rituals, propitiate divinities, and are held in a lot of respect as intermediaries between the
society and spirits. Some major indigenous religious groups that still claim adherents among
the region's population are discussed here under. Waqeffanna of the Oromo is based on the
existence of one Supreme Being called Waqa. Waqa's power is manifested through the spirits
called Ayyana. The major spirits include Abdar/Dache (soil fertility spirit), Atete (women or
human and animal fertility spirit), Awayi/Tiyyana (sanctity spirit), Balas (victory spirit),
Chato/Dora (wild animals defender), Gijare/ Nabi (father and mother’s sprit), Jaricha (peace
spirit), Qasa (anti-disease spirit) etc. There is also a belief that the dead exist in the form of a

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ghost called Ekera in the surrounding of his/her abode after death, or his/her cemetery
(Hujuba). In the autumn and spring seasons every year at the edge of ever-flowing river and
top of mountain respectively, there is thanks giving festival called Irrecha besides New Year
(Birbo) rite. Revered experts known as Qallu (male) and Qallitti (female) have maintained
link between the Ayyana andthe believers.
Qallu's ritual house called galma is located on hilltop or in the groves of large
trees. On Wednesday and Friday nights, there is Dalaga/ecstasy at which Qallu or Qallitti is
possessed by Ayyana so that s/he can interpret mysteries. The Jila/Makkala (delegated
messengers) used to make pilgrimage to get consecration of senior Qallu (Abba Muda or
anointment father) until about 1900. Abba Muda had turban surrirufa of tri-colors: black at
top, red at center and white at bottom representing those in pre-active life, active (Luba) and
those in post-active life respectively. Among the Hadiya the Supreme Being is known as Waa,
who is believed to exist before everything (hundam issancho) or create world (qoccancho)
and whose eyes are represented by elincho (sun) and agana(moon). Spirits like Jara (male’s
protector), Idota (female’s guard), Hausula, Qedane and Warriqa attracted prayers and
sacrifices at Shonkolla and Kallalamo mountains chosen by Anjancho and Jaramanjcho. One
of Hadiya's clans, Worqimene, is believed to have the power to send rain in drought.
Fandanano (sing.
Fandancho) practice is believed to be introduced by either spiritual leaders, Itto and Albaja
from Bimado clan, or Boyamo, father of five Hadiya clans, and was largely followed by
inhabitants of Boshana, Misha etc. The Kambata have Negita or Aricho Magano/Sky God
and religious officials known as Magnancho. The Gedeo called the Supreme Being, Mageno
and had thanks giving ceremony called Deraro.The Konso religion is centered on worship of
Waaq/Wakh. The Gojjam Agaw used to call the Supreme Being Diban (Sky God). Among
sections of the Gurage, there have been Waq/Goita (Supreme Being), Bozha (thunder deity)
and Damwamwit (health goddess). Yem worshipped Ha’o (Sky God). So’ala clan was
considered as the top in religious duties as it was in charge of Shashokam (the most vital
deity). Religious functions were performed through couriers in each village called Magos.
The Konta’s spirit-cult was called Docho. The Wolayta called God Tosa and spirit Ayyana
including Tawa-Awa /Moytiliya (father’s spirit), Sawuna (justice spirit), Wombo (rain spirit),
Micho (goat spirit), Nago (sheep spirit), Kuchuruwa (emergency spirit), Gomashera (war
spirit), Talahiya (Beta Talaye or talheya,Omo spirit) etc.
Dufuwa (grave) was believed to be abode of Moytiliya. Annual worship of
spirits was performed at a sacred place called Mitta usually at the end of May and beginning

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of June to offer sacrifice of the first fruits called Teramo or Pageta (Dubusha). People
gathered around tree called Dongowa, which varied from clan to clan: sycamore (Ficus sur
exasperate) for the Bubula, podocarpo for Zatuwa etc. The Qesiga called their meeting place
Kasha (Dabre). To protect people from eating crop before harvesting Zomboro clan used
Diqaysa practice by planting in their fields sour olive and nubica trees. The Wolayta also had
the practice of Chaganna (prohibited days to work) to protect produce from disaster. They
also chose and kept dark brown heifer called Beka (Beqabe) or Baqa Potilliya (Literally,
ritual cattle) as birthday fate. If they made error in respecting this custom, they would anoint
their bodies with a leaf called Aydameta (ground red pepper) as repentance. Religious
practitioners known as Sharechuwa had Becha or Kera Eza Keta (ritual house).
The Keficho called Supreme Being as Yero; spirit as Eqo and a person who hosts Eqo is
known as Alamo or eke-nayo. Father of all spirits is dochi or dehe-tateno and its host is called
dochi-nayo or Ibedechino/Ibede-gudeno (including Arito and Wudia Riti), with residence at
Adio. Harvest spirit is called Kollo and sacrifice to it is dejo. Earth and area spirits are known
as Showe-kollo and Dude-baro respectively. There are also local spirits like damochechi of
Channa, yaferochi of Sharada and wogidochi of Adio as well as gepetato or king of hill
identified by Yetecho clan as landowner. Members of the Dugo clan led spiritual services.
The Boro-Shinasha people believe in super natural power called Iqa, which created
everything and presides over the universe. The indigenous religion elements prescribe
praying for the prevention of drought, flooding, erosion, disease and starvation within the
community and their surrounding environment. Among various prayer rituals, the first is
Gure Shuka for preservation of their locality through slaughtering animals by calling the
name of God being at the tip of the mountains. The second is Shode De’na, praying and
slaughtering when unexpected disease happens. The third is Marrowa Shuka; slaughtering
for children to grow without disease and to prevent children from evil spirits attack; for
rehabilitation of wealth; to promote harmonious way of life and productivities in the family.
The rituals are led by recognized elders, whose pray and bless are trusted to reach God
among the three clans: Enoro, Endiwo and Dowa.
The Nuer believe in Kuoth Nhial (God in Heaven), but believe in the coming of God through
rain, lightning and thunder, and rainbow is necklace of God. Sun and moon as well as other
entities are also manifestation or sign of God. There are also spirits associated with
clanspears names such as WiW (spirit of war) associated with thunder. The Nuer believe that
when a person dies, flesh is committed to earth while breath or life goes back to Kuoth and
soul that signifies human personality remains alive as a shadow or a reflection, and departs

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together with ox sacrificed to place of ghosts. An interesting feature of indigenous religion is
the way its practices and beliefs are fused with Christianity and Islam. This phenomenon of
mixing of religions is known as syncretism.
2.4.2. Judaism
Judaism is considered as the expression of the covenant that Yahweh/Jehovah (God)
established with the ancient Hebrew community. Sources indicate that Judaism has been
followed in Ethiopia and the Horn by peoples before Christianity reached the region. . The
Bete-Israel practiced Haymanot (religious practices, which are generally recognized as
Israelite religion that differs from Rabbinic Judaism). Many of the Bete-Israel accounts trace
their religion from the very ancient migration of some portion of the Tribe of Dan to
Ethiopia, led it is said by sons of Moses, perhaps even at the time of the Exodus (1400-1200
B.C.). Alternative timelines include perhaps the later crises in Judea, e.g., split of the
northern Kingdom of Israel from the southern Kingdom of Judah after the death of King
Solomon or Babylonian Exile. Other Bete-Israel take as their basis the account of return to
Ethiopia of Menilek I, who is believed to be the son of King Solomon (r. 974-932 B.C.) of
ancient Israel and Makeda, ancient Queen of Saba (Sheba), and considered to be the first
Solomonic Emperor of Ethiopia. Another group of Jews is said to have been arrived in
Ethiopia led by Azonos and Phinhas in 6th century A.D. There are also other stories that
attribute the presence of the Bete-Isreal in Ethiopia to an intermarrige between Jewsh
immigrants with native Agaws. On the other hand, scholars such as Tadese Tamirat and Kay
Shelmay argue that the Bete-Israel are remenants of old testament followers of orthodox
Christianity rather than Jews who migrated from abroad.Whatever the case, the Jews appear
to have been isolated from mainstream Judiac practice for at least a millennium. The Jews
developed and lived for centuries in northern and northwestern Ethiopia.
2.4.3. Christianity
Christianity became state religion in 334 A.D. during the reign of King Ezana (r. 320-360),
who dropped pre-Christian gods like Ares (Hariman/Maharram/war god), Arwe
(serpentpython god), Bahir (sea god) and Midir (earth god), and embraced Christianity.
Instrumental
in conversion of the king were Syrian brothers, Aedesius and Frumentius (Fremnatos).
When Fremnatos (Kasate Birhane or Abba Salama) visited Alexandria, Patriarch Atnatewos
(328-373) appointed him as the first Bishop of Ethiopian Orthodox Church (EOC).
Consecration of bishops from Coptic Church in Egypt continued until 1959, when Abune
Baslios became the first Ethiopian Patriarch.

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 Christianity was further expanded to the mass of the society the later part the fifth century,
during the reign of Ella Amida II (478-86) by the Nine Saints shown in the table below:
Table I: The Nine Saints
Name Origin Church/Monastery Location of the Church
Abuna Aregawwi (Abba
Constantinopole Debre Damo Eastern Tigray
Za Mika’el)
Abuna Isaq (Abba
Constantinopole Debre Gerima Medera (East of Adwa )
Gerima)
Asbo (North East of
Abba Pentelwon Constantinopole Debre Pentelwon
Aksum)
Yeha (Northeast of
Abba Afse Ladocia Debre Afse
Aksum)
Biheza (Northeast of
Abba Alef Qa’esare’a Debre Haleluya
Aksum)
Abba Gubba Cilicia Debre Gubba West of Medera
Abba Liqanos Constantinople Debre Qonasel North of Aksum
Abba Sehama Antioch Tsedania Southeast of Adwa
Abba Yima’ata Qosa’iti Debre Yima’ata Ger’alta

Source: Sergew Hable Sellassie, Ancient and Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270 (Addis
Ababa:
Haile-Selassie I University Press, 1972), pp.115-119.

The saints also translated the Bible and other religious books into Geez. The expansion of
Christianity continued in Zagwe period (1150-1270) and chiefly gained fresh momentum
during the early Medieval Period (1270-1527), when many churches and monasteries were
constructed. These include Rock-hewn churches of Lalibela, Debra-Bizan of Hamasen in
Eritrea; Debra-Hayiq in Wollo, Debre-Dima and Debre-Werq in Gojjam; Debra-Libanos in
Shewa, Birbir Mariam in Gamo and Debre-Asabot on the way to Harar. These churches and
monasteries are not merely religious centers, but served through the ages as repositories of
ancient manuscripts and precious objects of art. From mid-sixteenth to the early seventeenth
centuries, the Jesuit missionaries tried to convert Monophysite EOC to Dyophysite Catholic.
Yet, this led to bloody conflicts that in turn led to expulsion of the Jesuits. However, the

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Jesuits intervention triggered religious controversies within the EOC that is discussed in
subsequent units.

As of 1804, missionaries’ religious expansion also resulted in the conclusion of treties

between European diplomats and Ethiopian authorities. The Catholic Giuseppe Sapeto
(Lazarist mission founder), Giustino De Jacobis (Capuchin order founder), Cardinal Massaja,
Antoine and Arnauld d'Abbadie were active. Anglican Church Missionary Society (ACMS),
Church Missionary Society of London (CMSL) and Wesleyan Methodist Society led
Protestant missionaries under such leaders as Samuel Gobat, C.W. Isenberg and J. L. Krapf.
Systematic approach of trained Protestants enabled them to win confidence of local people.
They translated spiritual books into vernaculars. They adopted old names for Supreme Being
like Waqayyo, Tosa etc and used them in new versions as equivalent to God. Village schools
were established as centers of preaching the faith. These schools were open to all children of
chiefs and farmers. They also provided medical facilities. All these attracted a large number
of followers. Eventually, continuous and systematic indoctrinations seem to have resulted in
grafting of new teaching on indigenous religion.

2.4.4. Islam

When Prophet Mohammed had preached Islam in Mecca since 610 AD, he faced opposition
from the Quraysh rulers. Under this circumstance, the Prophet sent some of his early
followers to Aksum including his daughter Rukiya and her husband Uthman as well as the
Prophet's future wives Umm Habiba and Umm Salma to Aksum .The first group of refugees
was led by Jafar Abu Talib. In his advice to his followers, the Prophet said of Ethiopia, "…a
king under whom none are persecuted. It is a land of righteousness, where God will give
relief from what you are suffering." The then Aksumite king, Armah Ella Seham (Ashama b.
Abjar or Ahmed al-Nejash in Arabic sources), gave them asylum from 615-28. Leaders of the
Quraysh asked Armah to repatriate the refugees, but the king did not comply. Armah is said
to have replied, "If you were to offer me a mountain of gold I would not give up these people
who have taken refugees with me.”

Subsequently, Islam spread to the Horn of Africa largely through peaceful ways including
trade. Islam was well established in Dahlak (Alalay) Islands on the Red Sea by the beginning
of the eighth century. In the early tenth century, the Muslim community on the islands
developed a sultanate. In due course, Muslims settled other places on the Red Sea coast. It
was from these coastal areas that Islam gradually spread among the predominantly pastoral

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communities of the interior, largely through the agency of preachers and merchants.
Notwithstanding the debates, the Dahlak route played a minor role in the introduction of
Islam into the interior as Christianity was strongly entrenched as a state religion in Aksum
and later states of northern Ethiopia and open proselytization of Islam was prohibited. Thus,
the port of Zeila on western coast of the Gulf of Aden served as an important gateway for
the introduction of Islam mainly into the present day Shewa, Wollo and Hararghe. Islam
firmly established itself in the coastal areas by the eighth and ninth centuries. From there, it
radiated to central, southern, and eastern Ethiopia through the role of Muslim clerics who
followed in the footsteps of traders. In this regard, it should be noted that Sheikh Hussein of
Bale, a Muslim saint (Waliy) of medieval period, played very important role in the expansion
of Islam into Bale, Arsi and other southeastern parts of Ethiopia and the Horn. Another
Islamic center in this region is Sof Umar cave.

Islam was introduced into Somali territories in the eigth century A. D. through Benadir coasts
of Moqadishu, Brava and Merca. Abu Bakr Ibn Fukura al Din Sahil set up Moqadishu
Minirate c.1269.The mosques, Islamic learning and pilgrimage centers have been the
depositories of cultures, traditions and literature of local Muslims.

CHAPTER THREE-
POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIETY IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN TO THE
END OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY
3.1. Emergence of States
One important factor for the emergence of states was the beginning of sedentary agriculture.
Humans away from the caves and rock shelters in mountains and started living around their
farm plots. They built houses and crop storage protected from moisture or humidity. For
mutual security and to help each other in hard works, families began to live together. Then
the family grew into the community. The stick was gradually replaced by the ox-drawn plow.
Farmers acquired surplus produce to exchange with better tools and clothes with the artisans
who were able to specialize in the production of these items. Gradually intermediaries
(traders) also began to buy the products of both to take markets and sell. Then a merchant
class emerged. Therefore, Therefore, states were formed mainly through the expansion of
agriculture that gave rise to class differentiation. Furthermore, the growth of trade facilitated
the development of states.

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State is a highly developed mode of human organization in that it has: Definite territorial area,
Large group of people, An autonomous political unit & Having a government with the power
to decree and enforce laws. State was the outcome of regular cultural process. In this regard,
it should be emphasized that, states arose independently in different places and at different
times. Favorable environmental conditions helped to hasten the rate of transformation in
some regions. Religious leaders such as shamans played prominent role in maintaining the
social and religious affairs of their people during the intial formation of the states. As
production became market oriented, religious elites were gradually replaced by chiefs, who
began collecting regular and compulsory tributes which amounted to protection payments
with which they maintained themselves, their supporters chiefly the army, the bureaucracy
and other followers.
Ethiopia and the Horn is one of the regions in Africa where early state formation took place.
Geographical proximity to international water bodies like Red Sea, Gulf of Aden and Indian
Ocean & rich interior favored state emergence in the region.

3.2. Ancient States

3.2.1. North and Northeast
A. Punt
Punt was the earliest recorded state in Ethiopia and the Horn. The Egyptians hieroglyphic
were the first to give some account about Punt. Egyptian records and paintings tell of a series
of Egyptian naval expeditions sent to the land of Punt.Pharaoh Sahure (r. 2743-2731 B.C.).
The best described and illustrated expedition was the one undertaken by Queen Hatshepsut (c.
1490- 1468 B.C). The expedition was warmly welcomed by the Puntites King Perehu, his
wife Ati and his followers. The expedition is said to have taken back from the land of Punt
various types of incense, sweet-smelling (sandal), ivory, rhinoceros horn, gold, ebony
leopard skins and live monkeys.
Scholars have not reached agreement on the exact location of Punt. Some identified it with
northern or northeastern part of Somalia because of the varieties of incense and myrrh
mentioned in the writings. Other related it to northern Ethiopia because of the references to
gold, ebony and monkeys. Considering the two suggestions, still some others argue that it
probably stretched from Swakim or Massawa to Babel Mandeb (Gate of Tears) and Cape
Guardafui.

B. Da’amat and Other Cultural Centers in Northern Ethiopia and Eritrea

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The state known as Da’amat had a center a little to the south of Aksum. Inscription of the
king of Da’amat tentatively dated to the fifth century BC shows that he used politico-
religious title known as Mukarib. Various gods and goddesses like Almouqah (principal god),
Astarr (Venus god), Na’uran (light god), Shamsi (sun god), and Sin (moon god) were
worshipped in the domain of the Da’amat state and other northern Ethiopian pre-Aksumite
cultural centers.There were similar practices in South Arabia at the time.

There were a number of cultural centers in northern Ethiopia. The major ones are:

 Yeha: is located 30 kms to the northeast of Aksum and was the oldest of these centers. It
probably emerged around 1, 000 BC. It seems that the period of its prosperity was from about
750 to 500 B.C. Remains of walls of some of its buildings still standing indicateYeha’s glory.

 Hawulti Melazo: is situated to southeast of Aksum, where stone tablets that are inscribed
in rectangular temple surrounded by a wall have been excavated Hawalti Melazo.

 Addi-Seglemeni: is located southwest of Aksum, from where a stone slab is found and
the oldest Ethiopian monumental inscription is discovered.

There were also other cultural centers like Addi Gelemo, Addi Grameten, Addi Kewih, Atsbi
Dera, Feqiya, Hinzat, Sefra, Senafe, Tekonda etc.

C. The Aksumite State

The origin of Aksumite State goes back to around 200-100 B.C. Initially, its territory was
limited to a small area comprising the town of Aksum and its environs. But gradually it
expanded in all directions. In its heyday, Aksumite territories extended In the east up to Red
Sea coast, in the west up to the Nile valley, in the north to northern Eritrea & in south as
north Shawa.

Two important contemporary documents describe Aksumite state and commerce. The early
formation of the Axumite state has derived from a document written by unknown Greek
speaking, entitled the “Periplus of Erythraen Sea” written in 1st ce A.D. It describes Adulis
was the major port of Aksum. The long distance trade routes from Adulis and other posts on
the Red Sea coast passed inland through such centers as Kaskasse, Coloe, Matara and even
further west across Takaze River.
The document also mentioned ports of Aden Gulf like;Zayla and Berbera, and Indian Ocean
Coasts like Moqadishu, Brava and Merca. The major items of export of the Aksumite state
consisted mainly of the natural products such as ivory, myrrh, frankincense and some spices
(like ginger, cassia and cinnamon), gold, rhinoceros horns, hippopotamus hides, tortoise
shells and apes. In turn, a number of manufactured products like garments and textiles from
Egypt, India, the Roman Empire, and Persia; glassware and jewelry from Egypt and other
places; metallic sheets, tools or utensils of various kinds, oil and wine from the regions of

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Roman Empire and Syria were imported. It also mentions the name of the Aksumite king,
Zoscales (76-89), who had the knowledge of the Greek language, the lingua Franca of the
Mediterranean world at the time.
In the book published by Cosmas Indicopleustes’ entitled the “Christian Topography”,
written in Greek about an unknown king. it describes commercial activities of the Red Sea
areas. It also mentions the internal long distance trade between Aksum and a distant region
called Sasu, in Beni Shangul. A big caravan merchants some of them special agents of the
kings of Aksum would take to Sasu cattle, lumps of salt (probably salt blocks) and iron to
exchange for gold. Yet, as they did not speak each other’s language, and did not even trust to
be near to each other to bargain through signs and gestures, the whole exchange was done
without one side seeing the other. This was a good example of silent trade.
Aksumite kings had extensive contacts with the outside world notably with the South Arabian
region, leading to exchange of ideas, material and spiritual culture. Sometimes such contacts
involved conflicts between the two regions. From the third to the seventh centuries, Aksumite
kings like Aphilas, Endybis, Wazeba, Ezana, Ousanas II, etc. minted and issued different
kinds of coins in gold, silver and bronze for both overseas and local transactions

Aksum was one of the four great powers of the world (i. e. Roman Empire, Persia, China and
Aksum) at the time. It was a major naval and trading power from the first to the seventh
centuries. Between the 3rd and 7thce, Aksum had conquered territories in the South Arabia.
King Gedarat (200-230s A.D), had occupied parts of Southern Arabia. Kaleb (r.500-35)
expanded overseas territories of Aksum beyond Himyar and Saba, but the local prince Dhu-
Nuwas was converted to Judaism and killed many Christians. In 525 A.D, Kaleb led a naval
expedition to South Arabia. he was supported by Byzantine Vesalius Justinian (r. 527-65) and
Patriarch Timit III (518-538). Dhu Nuwas was defeated and Kaleb appointed Abraha as
governor of Arabia that continued until 570 A. D.

The Aksumite state begun to decline since the late seventh century because of internal and
external challenges.
1. Internal factors; Environmental degradation, decline in agricultural productivity
started to weaken it.
2. External factors; With the destruction of the port of Adulis by the Arabs around 702,
then, whole network of Aksumite international trade came under the control of Arab
Muslims and Axum was isolated from its old commercial and diplomatic partners.
this led to the decline of its political and military power

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Finally Aksumite hegemony was challenged by local rebellions The recurring rebellions of
the Beja, the Agaw and Queen Bani al Hamwiyah (Yodit) finally sealed the collapse of the
Aksumite state.
D. Zagwe Dynasty
The rebellions of peoples as well as Queen Gudit invaded Aksum that led to general shift of
the center of the state south wards to Kubar in the territory of the Agaw. This apparently gave
Agaw elites the opportunity to take part in Aksumite state serving as soldiers and
bureaucracies for four centuries. After integrating with Aksumite ruling class, they
successfully tookover the state administration. Accordingly, the Agaw prince Merra
Teklehaimanot married Masobe Worq, the daughter of the last Aksumite king Dil Na'od.
Later he overthrew his father-in-law and took control of power. Merra-Teklehaimanot's
successors include Yimirahana Kirstos, Harbe, Lalibela (1160-1211), Ne'akuto La'ab,
Yetbarek etc. The Zagwe Dynasty is believed to have ruled from c. 1150 to 1270.
The Zagwe Dynasty made its center in Bugna District at Adafa near Roha (Lalibela). Zagwe
rulers renewed cultural and trade contact with eastern Mediterranean region. Furthermore, the
Zagwe period was a golden age in Ethiopia's paintings and the translation of some religious
works from Arabic into Ge'ez. The Zagwe rulers are best known for the construction of 11
Monolithic churches during reign of Lalibela. Lalibela wanted to establish the second
Jerusalem, and even avoid difficulties, which Ethiopian Christians encountered in their
journey to the Holy Lands. This was done by constructing churches based on the model of
Holy Lands in Israel.

Based on their designs & shapes there are caves, semi-hewn & monolithic churches:
 Cave: with some decoration inside, almost similar with natural cave, eg. Bete-
Mesqel

 Semi-hewn: with detailed interior decoration & partial decoration outside. They
are not totally separated from surrounding rock. Their roofs or walls are still
attached to rock, eg. Bete Denagil; Debresina/Mikael, Golgota, Merqoriwos,
Gabrel and Aba Libanos.

 Monolithic: with detailed decoration inside including roof & outside. They are
completely separated from surrounding rock. Amanuel, Giyorgis, Mariyam &
Medhanialem.

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Among the eleven churches of Lalibela, Bete Medhanelem is the largest of all and Bete
Giyorgis is said to be the most finely built in the shape of the Cross

The Decline and Fall of the Zagwe Dynasty

1. Succession problem (internal factors): The problem of succession between them

weakened the Zagwe dynasty.

2. External factors; Political opposition from descent ancient rulers of Aksum; These
groups considered the Agaw kings as illegitimate rulers.The opposition was on the
basis of the ancient legend of the Queen of Sheba on a book known as Kebra-Negest
(Glory of Kings). According to this legend, all the kings of Aksum had to be direct
descendants of Menelik I, son of the queen and king Solomon of Israel. Yekuno-
Amlak (r1270-1285), who claimed decent from the last Aksumite king, organized his
forces with the assistance of the clergy and revolt against Yitbarek, the last king of
Zagwe in 1270 AD. Yetbarek was killed in Gaynt and Yekuno-Amlak took the state
power proclaiming the “restoration” of “Solomonic” Dynasty

3.2. 2. East, Central, Southern, and Western States

3.2.2.1. Bizamo, Damot, Enarya and Gafat
A. Bizamo: was a kingdom located on the southern bend of Abay River just opposite to the
present districts of Gojjam and around the current Wambara area. It was founded in the
eighth century and had early connections with Damot.

B. Damot: was a strong kingdom that expanded its territories into most of the lands the
south of Abay and north of Lake Turkana as well as west of Awash and east of Didessa.
Motalami was a prominent king of Damot in the thirteenth century.

C. Enarya: was a kingdom in the Gibe region in southwestern Ethiopia. The royal clan was
Hinnare Bushasho (Hinnario Busaso). Enarya's kingship was a divine one: the king
(HinnareTato) was secluded and considered as sacred. The kings had residences in Yadare
and Gowi. In the nineth century, Aksumite king Digna-Jan is said to have led a campaign into
Enarya, accompanied by Orthodox Christian priests carrying arks of covenant (tabots).

D. Gafat: historically, the territory of Gafat lies south of Abay (Blue Nile) River adjoining
Damot on the south western periphery of the Christian Kingdom. It was inhabited by Semitic
speaking population related to Harari and the Gurage. It is not clear from available records

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whether the Gafat formed a “state” or not, but Gafat mountains provided a rich source of gold.
Despite efforts by Christian evangelists, the Gafat largely remained practitioners of their own
indigenous religion. As of early medieval period, Gafat was paying tribute to the Christian
Kingdom mainly in cattle. The state was governed by rulers bearing the title of Awalamo.

3.2.2.2. Muslim Sultanates

After the spread of Islam since the beginning of the eighth century, viable Muslim
communities and states had been established at many locations especially along the main
trade routes from Zeila and its many branches penetrating the interior. These states include:

A. Shewa: Makhzumi Khalid ibn al-Walid, who claimed decent from Meca, set up the
Makhzumite Sultanate in 896 A. D (283 A.H.) on northeastern foothill of Shewa.

B.Fatagar: was founded around Minjar, Shenkora and Ada’a in the eleventh century. It
was a hilly lowland area with thoroughly cultivated fields of wheat and barley and
extensive grazing grounds full of numerous herds of cattle, sheep and goats.

C.Dawaro: located south of Fatagar between upper waters of Awash and Wabi Shebelle
extending to Charchar in Northeast and Gindhir in Southeast. It was much smaller
than Ifat, but resembled it in many aspects. Dawaro had a currency called hakuna for
transaction

D.Bali: It was separated from Dawaro by the Wabi-Shebelle River and extended
southwards to the Gannale Dirre River. Bali was one of the largest of Ethiopia’s
Muslim provinces. Its economic activity resembles those of other nearby Muslim
lands. Trade was mainly based on barter exchanging cattle, sheep, cloth etc. It had
strong army composed of cavalry and infantry.

E. Ifat: was a state located adjacent to Shewan Sultanate. Its territory ran from northeast-
southwesterly in the Afar plain eastward to the Awash. It was established by Umar
Walasma, who claimed descent from Hashamite clan and said to have come from
Arabia between 1271 and 1285. Its inhabitants earned their living from cultivation of
wheat, sorghum, millet and teff, and animal husbandry. Sugar cane, bananas, variety
of fruits, beans, squashes, cucumbers, and cabbage completed the diet. Chat was
described for the first time as being consumed as a stimulant.

F.Others: autonomous states mutually independent states like Arababani (between

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 Hadiya and Dawwaro), Biqulzar, Dera (between Dawaro and Bali), Fadise, Gidaya,
Hargaya, Harla, Kwilgora, Qadise, Sharkah (West of Dawaro and North of Bali in
Arsi) and Sim were established and flourished.

3.3. External Contacts

Ethiopia and the Horn had contacts with Egypt since at least 3,000 B. C. These relations may
be the region’s earliest contacts with the Mediterranean world. It had very close relations
with South Arabian Kingdoms starting sometimes before 1,000 B.C. The introduction of
Christianity to Aksum established a new pattern of relation between the region and Egypt.
Until the introduction of Islam into Egypt and the general reduction of the Christians into
minority, relations between the two were fairly smooth and friendly. Following the
introduction of Christianity, Aksum established close relationship with the Byzantine Empire
with which it shared common commercial interest in the Red Sea area against their rival
Persians. Yet, in the seven century, this relation began to deteriorate. The rapid expansion of
the Muslim Arabs through the Near and Middle East, North Africa and the Nile valley led to
the decline of Aksumite land routes and shipping lines. Successive Egyptian Muslim rulers
began to use the consecration and sending of a bishop as an instrument to further their own
foreign policy objectives and to squeeze concessions from Ethiopian Christian rulers, who
reacted by threatening to divert the Nile. The coming to power of the Mamluk was followed
by the reciprocal persecution of religious minorities. Moreover, the Mamluk presented a
barrier to the contacts between Christian Ethiopia and European states.

However, the tradition to visit Jerusalem and other holy places in the Middle East had begun
at the end of the first millennium AD. In order to reach the places, Ethiopian Christian
pilgrims used the land route to Egypt. From Cairo, again they used the land route to the Holy
land. Consequently, there were considerable numbers of Ethiopian Christian communities
found in different regions, in Egyptian monasteries, in the holy places of Palestine and
Armenia, and in Italian city-states in subsequent centuries. The communities living in
different parts of the world served as an important link or bridge between Ethiopian Christian
Kingdom and Europe.When pilgrims met their fellow Christians of Europe in the holy places,
they transmitted information about the EOC and its exceptional liturgical practices. They also
explained about the territorial extent of the Christian Kingdom.

From the information, the Europeans began to consider Ethiopian Christian Kingdom as a
very powerful and wealthy state existing in the Horn of Africa. Consequently, they wanted to

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use this imaginary strong Christian power in their struggle against the Muslim powers in the
Holy land. Around the middle of the 12th century, a myth about a very rich and powerful
Christian ruler known as Prester John began to circulate in Europe. The legend was
developed when the balance of the crusade war fought over Jerusalem between the Christians
of Europe and the Muslims of the Middle East. The geographical location of the country of
Prester John was not known to Europe for over a century. However, the Europeans began to
regard Ethiopian Christian Kingdom as the land of Prester John since the only Christian
kingdom between the Red Sea and the Indian sub-continent was the Ethiopian Christian
Kingdom. Then, they began to search for the location of the Kingdom and to make an
alliance with it.

3.4. Economic Formations

A. Agriculture and Land Tenure System

The main stay of ancient states' economy in highland areas was plough agriculture. The
mastery of the technology of irrigation also contributed to the growth of agricultural
production. The people used diverse soil fertility enhancement strategies like manuring,
compost and spreading residues’ ashes as well as fallowing, crop rotation, intercropping and
contour plowing. In times of peak harvest seasons , farmers also orgnized teamwork.

Land has always been one of the most precious possessions of human society throughout
history. The rules according to which members of the society hold, share and use land
constitute what is known as the land tenure system. The most ancient system of land holding
which survived in many parts of Ethiopia and the Horn is the communal land tenure system.
Communal right to land is a group right. Here group refers to the family, the clan and the
other lineage groups to which the individual belonged. Each of these groups had communal
right to the land they lived in and freely exploited the resources of the land.

Peasants in the north had rist rights in their respective areas. Rist is a kind of communal
birthright to land by members of the families and clans whose ancestors had settled and lived
in the area over long periods. It is inherited from generation to generation in accordance to
customary law. Most of the subjects of the state had rist rights. The rist owners were known
as bale-rist. Yet, they paid tributes to the state and all land belonged to the state theoretically.
Tribute was collected through a complex hierarchy of state officials who were given gult
right over the areas and populations they administered on behalf of the central government.

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Gult is a right to levy tribute on rist owners’ produce. The tribute collected by bale-gults,
partly allotted for their own up keep and the rest were sent to the imperial center. Gult right
that became hereditary was called Riste-Gult.

B. Handicraft

Indigenous handcraft technology had existed since the ancient period. The social, economic
and political conditions of ancient states had allowed the emergence of artisans in various
fields including metal work, pottery, tannery, carpentry, masonry, weaving, jewelry, basketry
and others. Metal workers produced spears’ points, swords , javelins, bows, arrows, traps,
slashers, shields, knives, axes, hoes, ploughshares, spades, machetes, hatchets, iron tripods,
ornaments etc. Carpenters engaged in carving wood implements like doors, windows, stools,
chairs, tables, beds, headrests, mortars, bowls, beams, yoke, stilt, coffins etc while potters
produced ceramic utensils like saucepan, ovens, jar, pot, kettle, cooking tripod, plates,
granary etc. Tanners produced leather tools used for bed, bed cover, saddles, harness, ropes,
footwear, prayer mats, sacks, honey and butter container, drinking cup and clothes until
replaced by weavers’ cotton dresses.

However, except the carpenters and masons in some cases, the artisans were mostly
marginalized. The ruling classes mostly spent their accumulated wealth on imported
luxurious items rather than the domestic technology. The general public attitude towards
artisans was not at all encouraging. Consequently, the locally produced agricultural
implements and house furniture did not show any significant improvement and sophistication.

C. Trade

Trade was another important economic activity of ancient states that obtained considerable
income from both internal and international trade. The major socio-economic and political
centers of earliest states seem to have also been major trade centers with wide ranging
contacts in various directions within the region itself and with merchants coming to the area
across the international water bodies. The region was criss-crossed by various trade routes
connecting various market places in all directions. The regular flow of trade was so vital to
the states in that one of their major concerns was to protect the trade routes and make them
safe from robbers.

3.5. Socio-cultural Achievements

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 A. Architecture

As the states expanded, architecture also began to flourish and one of the unique
architectural technologies was the engraving of stele around the third century AD. There were
totally fifty eight steles in and around Aksum that can be grouped into well made and
decorated, half completed and megaliths (not hewn). The longest one of these stele measures
33meters heights (the first in the world). It is highly decorated in all of its four sides. It
represents a-14 storied building with many windows and a false door at the bottom. It also
bears pre-Christian symbols, which are a disc and a crescent (half moon) at the top. The
second longest obelisk measures 24 meters height that was successfully erected and
represents a ten-storied building with many windows and a false door at the bottom. The third
longest stele measures 21 meters and represents a nine-storied building with many windows
and a false door at the bottom. It is smooth at the back of its side with no decoration.

The Zagwe churches are regarded as some of the finest architecture of artistic achievements
of the Christian world and that is why they were registered by UNESCO as part of world
cultural heritage in 1978. Further refinement can be observed in the construction and
decoration of the rockhewn churches in the Zagwe period.

B. Writing System

The Sabean language had an alphabet with boustrophedon writing type that is paleographical
writing from left to right and right to left alternatively. The earliest Sabean inscriptions in
Eritrea and Ethiopia date to the ninth century BC. One peculiar feature of Sabean inscriptions
is absence of vowels as most of the words are written in consonants. For instance, Da’amat
was inscribed as D’mt, while its successive kings are written as RDM, RBH and LMN using
title, mlkn. After the seventh and sixth centuries BC, however, variants of script arose,
evolving in the direction of the Geʽez script (an alpha syllabary). By the first century AD,
"Geʽez alphabet" arose, an abjad (26 consonant letters only) written left-to-right with letters
identical to the first-order forms of modern vocalized alphabet.

Though the first completely vocalized texts known are inscriptions by Ezana (who left
trilingual inscriptions in Greek, Sabean and Ge'ez) c. 330 AD. The process was developed
under the influence of Christian scripture by adding vocalic diacritics for vowels, u, i, a, e, ə,
o, to the consonantal letters in a recognizable but slightly irregular way, so that the system is
laid out as a syllabary. Ethiopia's ancient indigenous writing system has immense

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contribution to the development of literature, art and the writing of history.

C. Calendar

People needed to know and remember the times when the rains would begin and end as well
as the rise and fall of the water level. The responsibility of understanding these vital climatic
cycles fell on expertise. In due course, calendars were invented. In most cases, the length of
the month was based on the movement of the moon or the apparent movement of the sun.
Calendars were developed and adopted among various peoples of Ethiopia and the Horn.
Oromo calendar has been based on astronomical observations of moon in conjunction with
seven or eight particular stars or group of stars called Urjii Dhahaa (guiding stars) and
Bakkalcha (morning star). There are 29.5 dates in a month and 354 days in 12 months of a
year. Pillars (dated 300 B.C.), which were discovered in northwestern Kenya from 1978-86
by Archaeologists Lynch, Robbins and Doyl have suggested to represent site used to develop
Oromo calendar. In connection with this, c. 900 A. D. Oromo person Waqlim is said to have
taken art of shaping phallic bowls to Zimbabwe.

The Sidama calendar rotates following movements of stars with 13 months a year, 12 of
which are divided equally into 28 days while the thirteenth month has 29 days. The Sidama
week has only 4 days (Dikko, Dela, Qawado and Qawalanka) and hence each month has 7
weeks. Nominated Mote (King) is presented to Fiche Chambalala, New Year ritual, for
Qetela or popular demonstration.

Ethiopic solar calendar has 12 months of 30 days plus 5 or 6 (is added every 4 years)
Epagomenal days, which comprise a thirteenth month. A gap of 7–8 years between Ethiopic
and Gregorian calendars results from alternative calculation in determining date of
Annunciation. Thus, the first day of the year, 1 Meskerem/Enkutatash is usually September
11 (Gregorian). However, it falls on September 12 in years before the Gregorian leap year.
The Ethiopic solar calendar has evolved to become the official calendar of the country.

The Muslim (Islamic) calendar is a lunar calendar consisting of 12 months in a year of 354 or
355 days. It employs the Hijra year of 622 AD, in which Mohammed and his followers made
flight from Mecca to Medina and established the first Muslim community (ummah). Dates in
this era are usually denoted AH (After Hijra, "in the year of the Hijra"). Years prior to the
Hijra are reckoned as BH ("Before the Hijra").

Other peoples like the Agaw, Halaba, Hadiya, Wolayta, Gedeo, the Nilotes, etc have their

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own dating system.

D. Numerals

Numerals appeared in Ethiopia and the Horn at the beginning of fourth century AD. Geʽez
uses numeral system comparable to the Hebrew, Arabic and Greek numerals, but it lacks
individual characters for multiples of 100. Numbers are over- and underlined in proper
typesetting, combined to make a single bar, but some less sophisticated fonts cannot render
this and show separate bars above and below each character.

UNIT FOUR

POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIETY FROM THE LATE

THIRTEENTH TO THE BEGINNING OF THE SIXTEENTH
CENTURIES

The “Restoration” of the “Solomonic’’ Dynasty

 The rulers of the “Solomonic” Dynasty claimed that they were descendants of the last
king of Aksum and hence, they were legitimate to take over state power from the
“illegitimate” rulers of the Zagwe dynasty.

 As the claim has no historical evidence, the name “Restoration” is put in quotation
mark.

 The KibreNegest claims that Ethiopian ruling class descended from the line of
Menilek I, son of the Queen of Sheba and King Solomon of Israel.

 As a result, Ethiopian monarchs from YikunoAmlak to Emperor Haile-Silassie I

claimed descent from Menilek I.

Power Struggle, Consolidation, Territorial Expansion and Religious

Processes
Succession Problem and the Establishment of a ‘Royal Prison’ of AmbaGishen

 Following the end of the reign of Yikuno-Amlak in 1285, a political instability caused
by constant power struggles among his sons and grandsons for succession occurred.

 The power struggle intensified during the reigns of Yegba-Tsion’s five sons who
reigned from 1294 to 1299.

 The succession problem seems to have been partly resolved in 1300 during the reign
of Widim-Ra’ad (r. 1299-1314) following the establishment of a 'royal prison' at

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 Amba-Gishen located in present day southern Wollo where all male members of the
royal family were confined until one among them was installed in power.

 This practice continued until Amba-Gishen was destroyed by Imam Ahmad Ibrahim
Al-Ghazi's force in 1540.

Consolidation and Territorial Expansion of the Christian Kingdom

 From 1270 until the establishment of Gondar in 1636, the medieval monarchs had no
permanent capital.

 After coming to power, Yikuno-Amlak embarked on consolidating his authority

throughout the empire.

 Amde-Tsion was the first "Solomonic" King, who embarked on a policy of a wider
and rapid territorial expansion.

 His main motives of expansion were economic and political i.e. to control the trade
routes and seize territories.

 The period also witnessed the expansion of trade leading to the flow of commodities
to the coast following the major routes.

 In the process of consolidating his power, Amde-Tsion subdued rebellions in an

attempt to end centrifugal tendencies, which threatened the unity of the Christian
Kingdom.

 To consolidate the control of the Christian state over the provinces of the north
extending to the coastal areas of Massawa, Amde-Tsion gave Enderta (in today’s
north-eastern Tigray) to his wife Bilen-Saba.

 Amde-Tsion's army faced stiff resistance from among Ifat and Shewa, which might
have cooperated with the rebellious army at Enderta, led by Yibeka-Igzi in 1320s.

 However, Bahr-Sagad, the son of Amde-Tsion, became the governor of Tigray.

 In 1325, Amde-Tsion campaigned to today’s Eritrean region. After controlling the

whole region, he appointed a governor with a title of Ma'ekale-Bahir, which later on
changed to Bahire-Negash.

 The consolidation and territorial expansion of the Christian Kingdom continued

during the successors of Amde-Tsion
Evangelization, Religious Movements, and Religious Reforms of
Zara-Yaqob
1. Evangelization
 Christianity had a long history of expansion.
 Churches and their believers had been in existence long before expansion of the
Christian Kingdom in various parts of the Horn of Africa.

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  In the thirteenth century, Eyesus-Mo'a opened new opportunities of learning for
Christians who lived in the central part of Ethiopia and later evangelized the newly
incorporated areas where the influence of Christianity had either been non−existent or
minimal.
 AbuneTekle-Haymanot (thirteenth century) played a key role in reviving Christianity
in Shewa, which was followed by the evangelization of areas in southern Ethiopia
including medieval Damot. He baptized and converted Motalami to Christianity.

2. Religious Movements
A. The Ewostatewos Movement

 Monasticism became a dominant practice in Ethiopian Orthodox Church in the mid

thirteenth century.

 The period witnessed development of monasticism and religious movements of which

the major one was the Ewostatewos movement, named after the founder.

 Ewostatewos established his own monastic community in Sara'e (in present day
Eritrea).

 Among his teachings was the strict observance of Sabbath.

 The followers of Ewostatewos soon became active and dispersed to different

monasteries in northern Ethiopia.

 The King and the Abun opposed the movement. Hence, the anti Ewostatewos group
led by the Abbot of the Hayq Monastery called Aqabe-Se’atSereqeBirhan was
supported by the Abun and the monarch.

 The clergy expelled Ewostatians from their church services; some of the Ewostatians
were forced to withdraw and settle in peripheral areas.

B. DeqiqeEstifanos/ the Estifanosites

 The Estifanosites were a movement within Ethiopian monasticism, called so after

their founder and spiritual leader Abba Estifanos.

 The movement rose to prominence in the fifteenth century and continued until the
sixteenth century, when it was formally reconciled with the main body of the
Ethiopian Orthodox Church.

 The head of the movement, Abba Estifanos, was born in Agame at the end of the
fourteenth century.

 He established a rigid monastic organization, which emphasized poverty, absolute

self-subsistence, equality and autonomy from secular authorities.

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  Zara-Yacob took very harsh measures against the Estifanosites allegedly for their
opposition of the veneration of St. Mary.

The Religious Reforms of Emperor Zara-Yaqob

Emperor Zara-Yaqob (r.1434-68) took several measures to stabilize and consolidate the
Orthodox Church. Such as:

 First, he settled the conflict among the Ethiopian clergy in order to create an amicable
church-state relationship.

 He made peace with the House of Ewostatewos by reviving Sabbath in the Ethiopian
church.

 He urged the clergy to preach Christianity in remote areas.

 He ordered the people to observe fasting on Wednesdays and Fridays and get Father
Confess.

 He encouraged the establishment of a library in every church and wrote some

religious books like Metsafe-Birhan, Metsafe-Me’lad, MetsafeSillasie, Metsafe-
te'aqebo Mister and others

Political and Socio-Economic Dynamics in Muslim Sultanates

 A number of strong sultanates had emerged since the fourteenth century.

 Trade was one of the major factors that resulted in the rise and development of those
states.

 Trade served not only as a major source of livelihood but also acted as a major agent
that resulted in the formation of Muslim Sultanes and remained a major source of
conflict between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim sultanates.

 One of the strong Muslim sultanates that emerged along trade routes and became a
centre of resistance against the Christian Kingdom until the second half of the
sixteenth century was the Sultanate of Adal.

The Rise of Adal

 After its establishment, Ifat conducted a series of campaigns against its neighbouring
sultanates thereby extending its hegemony over these areas.

 It also resisted the expansion of the Christian Kingdom.

 However, one branch of the Walasma family, which realized that Ifat was becoming
an easy target to the Christian Kingdom due to its location, moved further to the

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 south-eastern lowlands and established new and vigorous Muslim Sultanate of Adal in
the highland districts around Harar in 1367.

 The first center of this extended Walasma Dynasty was at a place called Dakar, a
place located to the southeast of Harar.

 The centre of Adal in 1520 changed to the city of Harar and after the defeat of Imam
Ahmed; a growing threat from a new force-the Oromo forced the sultanate to change
its capital to Awsa in 1576/7, to the present Afar region.

Trade and the Expansion of Islam

 Islam spread into the central and south-western parts of the Ethiopian region through
Muslim merchants and preachers.

 Trade served as channel for the expansion of Islam in the Muslim Sultanates while at
the same time it formed the base of the economy of those states. The most known
Muslim Sultanates during this period were Ifat (1285-1415) and Adal (1415-1577).

 The main trade outlet shifted to Zeila and the old city-states of Mogadishu, Brava, and
Merca were used as ports for their hinterland. In the meantime, for the trade in the
northeast, Massawa served as an outlet.

 With the revival of trade, different towns and trade centres emerged along the route
from Zeila to the interior.

 Muslim states had significant control over trade routes that passed through Zeila due
to their geographical proximity, although contested by “Solomonic” Kingdom
especially after its revival and consolidation
Rivalry between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim Sultanates
 Zeila was the main outlet to the sea during the medieval period. The ambition to
control this trade route and commodities that passed through Zeila led to rivalry
between the “Solomonic” rulers and the Sultanate of Ifat. The first recorded conflict
between the Christian Kingdom and Ifat took place in 1328 when the Muslim
Sultanates organized their armies to take military action against the Christian
Kingdom.

 Ifat was defeated and Sabradin was captured during his retreat. As a result, Ifat,
Fatagar and Dawaro were incorporated

 Following the decline of Ifat, other Muslim Sultanates like Sharkha, Bali, Dara, and
Arbabani were also seriously weakened.

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  In 1376, Haqadin II came to power and refused to pay tribute and rebelled against
Neway-Maryam (r. 1371-80), the son of Amde-Tsion. However, he died fighting in
1386.

 Yet, Adal continued to challenge the Christian state and were successful in killing
Tewodros (1412-13) and Yeshaq. This led to intense struggle for predominance.

 In 1445, Zara Yaqob defeated Sultan Ahmed Badlay at the battle of Yeguba.

 As a result, the son and successor of Ahmed Badlay, Mohammed Ahmed (r.1445-71)
sent a message of submission to Ba’ede Mariam (r. 1468-78) to remain vassal of the
Christian Kings.

 The successors of Ba'ede-Mariam proved weak in their dealings with the rulers of
Muslim Sultanates.

 At the same time, leaders of the Muslim Sultanate sought to resolve the problem
peacefully.

 However, among the various Sultans of the Muslim sultanates, Emir Mahfuz carried
out some effective military campaigns into the highlands.

 In 1517 Emir Mahfuz died fighting against Emperor Lebne-Dengel's (r. 1508-40)
force and his son-in-law, Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi, popularly known as
Ahmed Gragn or the "left-handed" took over the leadership.

 Apart from the hostile relations, there were wider socio-economic and cultural
interactions between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim principalities.

 Trade had long been the source of friendship, interaction, interdependence, and
conflict among the states of the region. The long distance trade and local markets
served as core areas of social ties.

 These interactions and interdependence in economic, social, cultural and political

spheres lay the foundation for modern Ethiopia.

 Beside the above discussed socio-cultural and economic interactions, the period
witnessed the flourishing of Geez literature as is evident from the works of Abba
GiorgisZe-Gasicha and others and philosophies epitomized by Zara-Ya'iqob.

 On the Muslim side, literature had developed including the works of Arab writers
such as IbnFadil al Umari, IbnKhaldun and others.

External Relations
A. Relations with Egypt

 From the late thirteenth century onwards, the Christian Kingdom continued to
maintain relations with Egypt, which was mainly religious in character. In 1272,

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 Yekuno-Amlak sent an emissary to Egypt’s Sultan, Baybars, requesting an Abun from
the Coptic Church.

 In the early fourteenth century, Mohammed ibnQala’un persecuted the Copts and
destroyed their churches in Cairo.

 In response, Amde-Tsion demanded the restoration of the churches and warned that
failure to do so would result in the diversion of the Nile waters

 Patriarch Marqos (1348- 63) sent a message to Sayfa-Arad (r.1344-71), revealing his
imprisonment by the then Egyptian Sultan. Sayfa-Arad is said to have mobilized a
huge army against Egypt after which the Sultan released the patriarch and sent a
delegation to the King.

 Besides, Patriarch Matewos (1328-1408) delegated by the Sultan, established

harmonious relations between King Dawit and Egypt. The Sultan is said to have sent
a piece of the "True Cross" and in return, Dawit is said to have given a number of
religious paintings to the Sultan.

 In 1437/8, Zara-Yaqob wrote a friendly letter to Sultan Barsbay requesting the

protection of Christians in Egypt. Three years later, however, Patriarch Yohannes XI
wrote Zara-Yaqob a letter stating the demolition of the famous church of Mitmaq
(Debre-Mitmaq).
 Then Zara-Yaqob sent an envoy to Sultan Jaqmaq (1438-53) with a strongly worded
letter. In reply to this message, Jaqmaq sent an envoy to Ethiopia, with complimentary
gifts to the King but rejected the reconstruction of the church.
B. Relations with Christian Europe
 As with the Muslim Arab world, the Christian Kingdom maintained relations with
Christian Europe. During the medieval period, contacts between the two regions were
strongly influenced by the legend of “Prester John”.
 The earliest known message to Ethiopia from a European monarch is the letter of
King Henry IV of England dated 1400 A.D. and addressed to “Prester John", the
purported king of the Christian Kingdom.
 Hence, during the reign of King Dawit, the leaders of Rome, Constantinople, Syria,
Armenia and Egypt sent letters to the king in which they asked for support.
 In 1402, King Dawit sent his first delegation to Europe led by a Florentine man called
Antonio Bartoli.
 Yishaq’s delegation to Europe was to ask for more artisans and military experts. The
embassy of the Duke of Berry consisting craftsmen, Neapolitan Pietro, a Spaniard and
a Frenchman reached Ethiopia during the reign of Yishaq.
King Zara-Yaqob sent delegates to Alphonso to get political, military, and technical
assistance. Alphonso wrote a letter to ZaraYaqob and informed him that he has sent
him artisans and masons he requested

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  The most authentic pieces of evidence on Ethio-Europe links are the maps of
EgyptusNovelo (c. 1454) and Fra Mauro's Mappomondo (1460) which clearly
depicted many places and peoples.
 The beginning and continued rivalry between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim
Sultanates in the fifteenth century strengthened the relation between the Christian
Kingdom and Christian Europe.
 Queen Elleni (the daughter of HadiyaGarad and married to King Zara Yaeqob) played
an important role in the strengthening of these relations.
 Around 1512, Queen Elleni, the mother and regent of Lebne-Dengel sent an
Armenian called Mathew to Portugal.

UNIT FIVE

POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIAL PROCESSES FROM THE EARLY

SIXTEENTH TO THE END OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES

Introduction

This unit discusses socio-economic and political developments from the early sixteenth to the
late eighteenth centuries. These contributed to the making of modern Ethiopia through the
intermingling of peoples, economic interdependence and political activities. Major
developments of the period include expansion of trade, conflicts between the Christian
Kingdom and Muslim Sultanates and foreign interventions; the population movements of the
Afar, the Somali, the Argoba and the Oromo; religious expansions, interaction of peoples and
the resultant integration across ethnic and religious diversities. Besides, it discusses societies
and states in different parts of Ethiopia and the Horn that passed through different historical
processes. Finally, this unit discusses the Gondarine Period (1636-1769), Zemene Mesafint
(1769-1855) including the Yejju rule (1786-1853).

5.1. Conflict between the Christian Kingdom and the Sultanate of Adal and After

As discussed in unit four, the revival of long-distance trade caused competition and struggle
for control over the trade routes between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim
principalities. This was followed by a series of wars, which were depicted as wars for
religious supremacy in historical accounts of Christian and Muslim clerics. While
maladministration and exploitation of periphery made military mobilization possible, religion
provided ideological justification for the wars. However, the interest to control trade routes

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lay at the heart of the conflict between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim Sultanates that
continued for over two centuries, culminating in the wars between the Christian Kingdom and
the Sultanate of Adal that lasted from 1529 to 1543.

As a prelude to this conflict, among the Muslim Sultanates, internal strife, corruption and
anarchy was intensified and a new leadership was urgently called for. Such leadership came
from Imam Ahmed Ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi. The origins of Imam Ahmed, alias “the
lefthanded,” are obscure. He was born at Hubet in between Dire Dawa and Jigjiga and raised
by his devout Muslim kin in one of the oases on the route to Zeila. He was a devout Muslim.
He soldiered for Garad Abun of Adal, who during his few years in power called for Islamic
Puritanism.

According to local tradition, the Imam withdrew to the countryside, upon the death of his
source of inspiration, Garad Abun, and started calling for devotion to the teachings of Islam.
Here came fundamental change in the cause of the confrontations. After Imam Ahmad’s rise
to power under circumstances discussed above, the battles were not just fought for control of
the long-distance trade route going through Zeila but mainly because there was
environmental pressure among the Afar and Somali pastoralists pushing to approach Harar
and the Christian Kingdom. For centuries, lowland inhabiting Muslim pastoralists had wanted
to expand to high plateaus for better and enough pasturelands and attempted to do so but only
to be held back by the Christian army. With increased population and overgrazing in Somali
and Afar of eastern Ethiopia, between the thirteenth and sixteenth centuries, raiding and
counter-raiding at water holes or animal rustling intensified.

It was one of the Imam’s remarkable achievements in leadership that he mobilized the
pastoral communities of the Afar, the Somali, the Harla, Harari and others to a common cause.
He convinced them not to fight amongst themselves but to unite and expand to the Christian
Kingdom and resolve their pressing material needs while at the same time guarding Islamic
doctrines and practices from the infiltration of any alien religious doctrine. He was able to
gain acceptance as Imam and consolidated his army to fight the Christian Kingdom.

Meanwhile, Lebne-Dengel was enthroned when he was only eleven. Assisted by the elderly
Elleni and due to internal conflicts in Adal, the Christian state initially retained its interest
and even advanced into Muslim territory scoring significant victories in the early sixteenth
century. As a result, most of the Muslim Sultanates including Adal were made tributaries to
the Christian Kingdom.

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However, shortly, Adal fell to Imam Ahmed’s army. By the time Imam Ahmed was strong
enough for military confrontation in 1520, he refused to pay tribute and this was followed by
a campaign against the Christian Kingdom in 1527.The Imam’s army fought fiercely and
controlled the territories including Bali, Dawaro, Fatagar, Sidama, Hadiya and Kambata and
putting the Christian Kingdom at risk.

In 1528, realizing the rising threat, Lebne-Dengel mobilized a vast force from his domain and
encamped about fifty kilometers east of what is now Addis Ababa. In addition to logistical
problems, the leadership of the army of Christian Kingdom failed to adopt a common strategy
to defeat Adal’s force. On the other hands, Imam Ahmed's highly motivated but small-sized
army faced no such logistical challenges. The Imam’s army had also an excellent leadership
characterized by better mobility and flexible tactics with a unified command.

As a result, the larger and well-equipped Christian army was defeated in one of the most
decisive engagement at the battle of Shimbra Kure in 1529, near present day Mojo. After the
victory, the Imam’s army made a large-scale control of the territories of the Christian
Kingdom including Shewa, Amhara, Lasta, and moved as far north as Mereb Melash. By
1535, Imam Ahmed’s empire stretched from Zeila to Massawa on the coast including the
Ethiopian interior. As he penetrated deep into the Christian Kingdom, Imam Ahmed
established a civil administrative bureaucracy constituted from his own men and newly
recruited personnel from the Christian territories.

One of the most illuminating figures during the war was the wife of the Imam, Bati Del
Wanbara. She was the daughter of a Muslim military commander of Adal known as Mahfuz.
Tradition claimed that Del Wanbara had encouraged her husband to avenge the death of her
father. She accompanied her husband throughout his expeditions and she is said to have
marched even in a state of pregnancy during which she was unable to use mules. Indeed, she
delivered her two sons during the campaigns of 1531 and 1533 in Ifat and present day Tigray
respectively.

On the part of the Christian Kingdom, the military set back forced the reigning king,
LebneDengel, to retreat finally dying in 1540 as a fugitive .His son and successor,
Gelawdewos (r. 1540-1559), continued to face the wars this time with more intensity as
Imam Ahmed had received Turkish musketeers. In the meantime, based on earlier request
made by LebneDengel in 1535, about four hundred Portuguese soldiers, armed with
matchlocks arrived in the Christian court in 1541.The force was led by Christopher da Gama,

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the youngest son of Vasco da Gama. However, in August 1542 the Christian army was
defeated in Ofla, in today's southern Tigray. In the battle, about two hundred Portuguese were
killed and their leader Christopher da Gama was beheaded.

An important anecdote that should be mentioned here is the role of Lebne-Dengel's wife
Seblewongel. She is said to have participated in the war against Imam Ahmed in 1542 when
the army of the Christian Kingdom lost almost half of the Portuguese soldiers. After the
success, Imam Ahmed was confident about his army’s ability to repulse any future attack by
the force of the Christian Kingdom that he sent his allies back home and let his army camp.
On the part of the Christians, preparations were made for final confrontation under the
leadership of Emperor Gelawdewos (r.1540-59). The Queen mother, Seble-Wongel, advised
the reigning emperor how to prepare and march for the battle of Woyna-Dega. Due to limited
resources, the monarch employed hit and run strategy, which severely affected Imam’s army.
Imam Ahmed’s army could not use its previous advantage of easy mobility because they did
not know where the attacks came from. On February 25, 1543 while Imam Ahmed was
encamped near Lake Tana, he was attacked and killed after a fierce fighting at the battle of
Woyna-Dega.

Soon after the battle, Gelawdewos was confident that the nobility and his army were loyal to
him. As a result, the king restored possession of almost all the northern and central plateau.
Muslim communities in the highlands submitted to Gelawdewos and he was tolerant toward
them to promote national conciliation and to develop revival of smooth relations with the
Muslim world. Besides, Gelawdewos was able to restore many of the pre-1520s territories
and tributary regions. The king attempted to reconsolidate the state through campaigns to
different areas and camping Chewa (regiment) in border areas. By the early 1550s,
Gelawdewos had established a strong Christian Kingdom. However, the control over the
Muslim dominated areas was not an easy task. In the period, the growing challenge to the
Christian state came from the retreating soldiers of the Sultanate of Adal, the Ottoman Turks,
Jesuit interlude, and Oromo advance into the center. Adal under the leadership of Nur Ibn
alWaazir Mujahid was ready to wage war against the Christian state for revenge. In 1559, the
forces of Emir Nur confronted Gelawdewos and killed the king himself.

Emperor Minas (r.1559-1563) who succeeded Gelawdewos defeated the Turks' force and
reclaimed territories in the coast including Dabarwa. However, in the early 1560s, Yishaq
revolted and allied with the Turks against him. Similarly, Sartsa-Dengle (r.1563-1598) had to

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defend his terittory from the Turks while fighting with the Agaw, Gumuz, Bete-Israel,
Sidama, Enarya and the Oromo. The emperor then marched to the north, defeated Turkish
forces, and restored the territories.

The Muslim-Christian conflict had resulted in a number of consequences. One of the most
obvious was the huge human and material cost. It is also evident that both the Muslim
Sultanate and Christian Kingdom were weakened thereby paving the way for an easy
infiltration and success of the Oromo population movement. On the positive side, it should be
restated that the war had arguably resulted in cultural interaction among the peoples of
Ethiopia. Linguistic and religious interactions accompanied by intermarriages among peoples
of the various cultural groups were one of these manifestations in the long history of Ethiopia
and the Horn.

Competition for supremacy over the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean between Portugal and the
Ottoman Turks gave the prolonged conflict between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim
principalities a global dimension. Middle Eastern powers including the dominant Ottoman
Empire who were the intermediaries of the international trade were adversely affected by the
discovery of a new sea route to India by Vasco da Gama in 1498. They tried to counter the
Portuguese encroachment into the East, while Portugal for its part began to look toward the
Christian Kingdom of Ethiopia as an ally, reviving the old "semi-spiritual quest" for Prester
John. From the first decade of the sixteenth century, messengers were sent. However, actual
military alliance did not take place because Ethiopia was not a sea power to give a
meaningful maritime support to Portugal against the Ottoman Turks. On its part, the Christian
Kingdom asked Portugal’s military assistance against its Muslim rival.

Having noticed the movement of diplomatic missions between the Christian Kingdom and
Portugal, the Turks gave moral and military support to Imam Ahmed. In 1540, the Imam
turned to his Muslim ally, Turkey, for assistance and regional Ottoman authorities provided
two hundred Muslim musketeers and ten cannons.

5.2. Foreign Intervention and Religious Controversies

As with the state, the church was weakened by the wars against the sultanate of Adal. The
destruction of property and deaths of its clergy hampered the operation of the Church and by
extension its service as an ideological arm of the state. At the same time, the monarchy could
not count on the traditional political and military apparatus to withstand the continued

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expansion of the Oromo deep into the Christian Kingdom and then to consolidate the
Christian Kingdom. Thus, revival was sought in the church.

The rulers of the Christian Kingdom may have regarded an alliance with Roman Catholicism
as a tactic to secure sufficient modern weaponry and training to restore its lost territories. In
1557, several Jesuit missionaries along with their bishop, Andreas de Oviedo, came to
Ethiopia to expand Catholicism. The Jesuits promoted Catholic doctrine of two different and
therefore separate, natures of Christ-divine and human, which was contrary to Monophysite
theology of Ethiopian Orthodox Church. EOC taught that Christ, through union or Tewahedo
had a perfect human nature inseparable from the divine. The leading members of the mission
who played key role in efforts to evangelize the country include Joao Bermudez, Andreas de
Oviedo, Pedro Paez and Alfonso Mendez.

The Jesuits began their evangelical effort with Emperor Gelawdewos (r.1540-59), hoping that
the rest of the society would follow suit. Gelawdewos listened and engaged in doctrinal
debates with the missionaries, but he was not prepared to give in. Instead, he defended the
teachings of Orthodox Christianity in a document entitled the Confession of Faith. Minas and
Sertse-Dengel, who succeeded Gelawdewos one after the other, were too busy fighting
against the Oromo and the Turkish forces to engage the Jesuits in their courts. The Jesuits got
relative success with Emperor Za-Dengel (r. 1603-4), who was said to have been sympathetic
to Catholicism. Yet Za-Dengel’s reign was too short for the Jesuits to effect the desired result.
Za-Dengel was overthrown by Yaqob (r. 1598-1603; 1604-7), who met a similar fate in the
hands of Susenyos (r. 1607-32).

Susenyos who was challenged by provincial leaders who refused to pay tribute, integrated the
Oromo with the forces of the central government to consolidate his power and stabilize the
country. Probably as a means to this, Susenyos sought for an alliance, which he got through
the diplomatic advisory of Pedro Paez. In 1612, Susenyos converted to Catholicism and
announced it to be state religion later in 1622. In the meantime, in 1617-8 several anti-
Catholic voices mounted following the changes in liturgy and religious practices.

Even worse, with the monarch’s consent, another Spanish Jesuit, Afonso Mendez ordered
reconsecration of Orthodox priests and deacons and rebaptism of the mass. Besides, he called
for the suspension of Old Testament customs such as male circumcision and the observance
of the Sabbath. Additional pronouncements include prohibition of preaching in Ge’ez, fasting
on Wednesdays and Fridays, reverence for Ethiopian saints and the Ark of Covenant (Tabot).

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Meanwhile, he ordered eating pork, Latin Mass and Gregorian calendar to be adopted. The
reforms led to revolts led by the ecclesiastics and the nobility. Even loyal followers of the
emperor including his own son Fasiledas (r. 1632-67) were opposed to the changes initiated
by the Jesuits.

After 1625, controversies, rebellions, repressions mounted and the state came to the verge of
falling apart. In a battle in June 1632, large number of peasants lost their lives in one day.
Finally, the emperor abdicated the throne in favor of Fasiledas, who reversed the Catholic
transformation. Fasiledas restored the position of Orthodox Church as the state religion,
expelled the Jesuits and punished local converts including Susenyos’ brother and the most
fervent supporter of Catholicism, Se'ela Kristos. Fearing another religious conflict, Emperor
Fasiledas introduced a “closed-door” policy, which isolated the country from all Europeans
for about a century and a half. Conversely, he initiated and adopted a policy of close
diplomatic relations with the Islamic world and formed an alliance with the neighboring
Muslim states to ensure that no European crossed into the Christian Kingdom. As a result, in
1647, he concluded an agreement with the Ottoman Pasha at Suakin and Massawa to the
effect that the latter should block any European from entering in to his territory. By doing so,
Fasiledas was able to restore peace and order. Ethiopia’s diplomatic break from Europe
remained effective until the beginning of the nineteenth century with the exception of secret
visits by a French Doctor Charles Jacques Poncet and the Scottish traveler James Bruce in
1700 and 1769, respectively.

Yet, the Jesuit intervention triggered doctrinal divisions and controversy within the Ethiopian
Orthodox Church that was divided into disputant sects and reached its peak during the
Zemene Mesafint. Tewahedo teaches Hulet Lidet (two births) of Christ: first in eternity as a
Divine Being the eternal birth and second, born again from St. Mary into the world as a
perfect man and perfect divinity united in one nature, thus Tewahedo (United). It was
dominant in Tigray and Lasta. Qibat (Unction) was also developed from Hulet Lidet doctrine
and accepted the eternal birth as the first birth of Christ, but claimed that at the moment of his
incarnation, when he was born into the world, Holy Ghost anointed him. This sect was
dominant in Gojjam. Sost Lidet/Three Births (Ya Tsega Lij/Son through Grace) taught that
Christ was first born in eternity as divine being, was born again in the womb of St. Mary and
anointed by Holy Ghost. This sect was dominant in Gonder and Shawa.

5.3. Population Movements

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The movements of people from one place to another have played important roles in shaping
the history of Ethiopia and the Horn. population movements occurred in the Horn due to
various reasons, in varied scales and followed different directions. People moved from place
to place due to pull and push factors, which can be summed up as natural and social.
Specifically, people move out from their habitats in search of resources and better living
environment in general. In Ethiopia and the Horn, the causes of the movements could be
attributed to the region's long socio-political conditions involving military conflicts, drought
and demographic factors.

Population movements of the medieval period had extensive effects including the integration
of peoples across ethnic and religious lines. Major outcomes of population movements during
the period under consideration include religious, ethnic and linguistic interactions and
intermingling of peoples. Specifically, this has resulted in intermarriage of peoples, change of
abode, original culture and evolution of new identities.

5.3.1. Population Movements of the Argoba, Afar, and Somali

The military conflict between the Christian Kingdom and the Sultanate of Adal in the late
fifteenth and the early sixteenth centuries was partly responsible for the population movement
of the Argoba, Afar and Somali. In addition, pressure on the environment was a major factor
for the population movement. Their territories lay in the region where trade routes passed and
hence were affected by the consequences of the military conflict. These peoples moved back
and forth in response to the on-going military conflict.

The Argoba: the Argoba were major agents of Islamic expansion, trade and Muslim state
formation in the Horn. For instance, the sultanate of Shewa and Ifat were established by
theMakhzumite and Walasma Dynasties respectively. Towards the end of the thirteenth
century, the sultanate of Shewa moved further to the east as the result of the pressure from the
Christian Kingdom. The sultanate of Ifat, in which the Argoba were dominant, became the
center of Muslim resistance. On the eve of the wars of Imam Ahmed al Ghazi, the Argoba
joined the Afar and the Somali against the Christian Kingdom. The area inhabited by the
Argoba was also a target of the expanding Christian Kingdom and was the major center of
conflict. This was because the major caravan trade routes passed through Argoba territory. As
a result, the Christian-Muslim rivalry and the conflicts thereof led to the destruction of
sultanates and dispersion of the people. The enduring effect of the conflict can be observed
from the fragmented settlement patterns of the people.

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The Afar: before the sixteenth century, due to drought, the Afar moved towards the east until
they reached the middle Awash. Trade routes linking the ports in the Horn passed through the
Afar's territory. As a result, the region was the centre of competition between the Christian
Kingdom and the Muslim sultanates to control the trade routes. Besides being actors in the
conflict, the conflict inevitably pressurized the Afar to move into different directions to avoid
the risk of the conflicts. Their pastoral economy helped the Afar to survive the destructive
effects of the wars of the sixteenth century.

The Somali: their territory lay in the region traversed by major trade routes during medieval
period. Prior to the sixteenth century wars between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim
Sultanates, there was environmental pressure on Somali inhabited areas. The population
movement of the Somali was a strong force behind the military strength of the Imam.
However, the population movement of the Somali did not last for long as they returned to
their home base following the defeat of Imam Ahmed in 1543.

5.3.2. Gadaa System and Oromo Population Movement (1522-1618)

A. The Gadaa System

The Oromo population movement of the sixteenth century cannot be better understood
without considering the Gadaa system. The Gadaa system was an institution through which
the Oromo socially organized themselves, administered their affairs, defended their territories,
maintained law and order, and managed their economies. This section reflects onthe
operation of the Gadaa system in relation to the Oromo population movement of the sixteenth
and seventeenth centuries.

Studies do not clearly indicate when and how the Gadaa system emerged. However, it is clear
that for long the society organized their politics, economy, social, cultural, and religious
affairs through the Gadaa institution. The account by Abba Bahrey indicates that during the
early sixteenth century, the system fully functioned because of which the Oromo were well
organized. Thus, it is reasonable to think that the Oromo had practiced the Gadaa system long
before the sixteenth century movement.

Recent studies based on the Gadaa calendar and Gadaa centers suggest that the system
evolved from the earlier Cushitic age-set social organization. Time computation and
recording history was based on the eight-year segment of time. In the system, eight years
represented one Gadaa period, 5-gadaa periods or 40 years represented one generation and

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nine generations represented an era. Accordingly, the earliest eras of Gadaa but still obscure
were those of Bidiri Dhoqqe. Prior to the beginning of Gadaa Borana-Barentu around 1450
AD, the Oromo passed through known eras of Taya, Tasaa, Munyo, Suftu, Maddile, Abroji,
Dhittacha and Warra-Daye (warden), each of which survived for an era. Gadaa was
interrupted and revitalized during various eras because of various internal and external factors.
For instance, the Borana-Barentu Gadaa was instituted after interruption for nearly two
generations. It was revived in 1450 at Madda Walabu that became the central Chaffe
(assembly) and seat of the senior Qallu until 1900.

The Gadaa system constituted elements of democracy such as periodic succession and power
sharing to prevent a one-man rule. Other principles of the system included representation of
all lineages, clans and confederacies. It also served as a mechanism of socialization,
education, maintenance of peace and order, and social cohesion. In addition, Gadaa
constituted rules of arara (conflict resolution), guma (compensation), and rakoo (marriage).

The Gadaa system organized the Oromo society into age-grades and generation sets
delineating members' social, political, and economic responsibilities. In the system, ten
agegrades and five classes operated in parallel. The system provided a socio-political
framework that institutionalized relationship between seniors and juniors and egalitarian
relations amongmembers of a grade. The system helped the members of age-sets to develop a
consistent and stable sense of self and others. Sons joined the first grade as members of
Gadaa class (generation class or set) forty years after their fathers and were initiated into the
next higher grade every eight years. The following table shows a common version of age-
grades and roles associated to them.

Gadaa Age-grades and their roles

Gadaa-grade Age Roles

Dabale birth-8 years socialization
Game 9-16
Folle 17-24 military training, agriculture etc
Qondala 25-32 military service
Raba-Dori 33-40 candidates for political power
Luba 41-48 leaders of Gadaa government
Yuba 49 to 80 senior advisors, educators and ritual leaders

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The gadaa/luba assumed power for eight years. The head of the government was known as
Abba-Gadaa literally “father of the period” who was assisted by several elected
representatives from among the generation set. These included Abba Bokku (father of
scepter), Abba Chaffe (head of the assembly), Abba-Dula (war leader), Abba Sera (father of
law), Abba Alanga (judge), Abba Sa'a (father of treasury) and other councillors.

In the Gadaa system, the senior Qallu (Abba Muda) played indispensable roles in power
transfer and legitimizing the ruling gadaa class. Women maintained their rights by the Sinqe
institution, which helped them to form sisterhood and solidarity. Women from childhood to
old age i.e. guduru (pre-pubescent), qarre (adolescent, ready for marriage), kalale (wives of
Luba and Yuba) and cifire (wives of Gadamojji/above 80 years) were believed to have sacred
power. They involved in occasions like power transfer, conflict resolution, thanks-giving and
others. The kalale were also privileged to support and advise the ruling class.

The Gadaa system functioned by the cyclical power transfer from one Gadaa class to the next
every eight years. With some minor differences in nomenclature in different parts of Oromo
territories, the five Gadaa classes (generation sets) are listed below:

The Five Gadaa Classes

Fathers Sons

Melba Harmufa

Mudena Robale

Kilole Birmajii

Bifole Mul’ata

Michille Dulo

B. The Oromo Population Movement (1522-1618)

A combination of natural and manmade factors caused the Oromo population movement of
the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Natural factors include demographic pressure and
subsequent need for land to accommodate the growing human and livestock population.
Furthermore, the conflict between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim Sultanates from the

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thirteenth to the sixteenth centuries might have pressurized mainly pastoral Oromo groups to
leave the lands they inhabited for other areas.

In the early decade of the sixteenth century, when the population movement began, the
Oromo were already organized under Borana and Barentu confederacies. The Oromo forces
took northern direction and passed through a corridor between Mount Walabu and Lake
Abbaya. When they reached half way between Lakes Abbaya and Hawassa, they took
westward and penetrated across the Bilatte River to the southwest. Then they headed
northwards to the lakes region of the Rift Valley.

From 1522 to 1618, the Oromo fought twelve Butta wars. Accordingly, the first Gadaa i.e
Melba (1522-1530) fought and defeated Christian regiment Batra Amora led by Fasil and
occupied Bali while Mudena (1530-8) reached the edge of Awash River. The Kilole (1538-
46) controlled Dawaro after defeating Christian regiment Adal Mabraq while Bifole (1546-
54) advanced to Waj and Erer. The Michille (1554-62) scored victory over Hamalmal's force
at Dago, and Jan Amora forces as well as Adal led by Emir Nur Mujahiddin at Mount Hazalo.
The Harmufa (1562-70) fought Minas (r.1559-63) at Qacina and Wayyata; occupied Angot,
Ganzyi, Sayint etc.

In 1574, Sartsa Dingil’s (r.1563-97) cavalry led by Azzaj Halibo defeated Robale gadaa
(1570-78) at Woyna Daga, but Robale recovered by defeating Zara’a Yohannis’ force. The
Birmaji (1578-86) controlled Ar'ine in Waj, crossed Jama to Wolaqa and overwhelmed the
Daragoti regiment. The Mul’ata (1586-94) seized Damot, Bizamo, Gafat, Dambiya and
Tigray. In the early seventeenth century, the Dulo (1594-1602), Melba (1603-10), and
Mudena (1610-18) expanded to West and Northern parts of the Horn of Africa while others
like the Warday moved to Kenya and Bur Haqaba and Majertin in Somalia.

In addition to the wars between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim Sultanates, the
organization of the Oromo under the Gadaa system played crucial role in the success of the
Oromo population movement. In the course of their movement into various regions, different
Oromo branches established Gadaa centers.

Accordingly, Oda Nabee of Tulama, Oda Roba of Sikko-Mando (Arsi), Oda Bultum of Itu-
Humabenna, Oda Bisil of Mecha and Oda Bulluq of Jawwi Mecha became major Gadaa
centers. Other places, which became Gadaa centers, were Gayo of Sabbo-Gona, Me'e Bokko
of Guji, Oda Dogi of Ilu, Oda Hulle of Jimma, Oda Garado of Waloo, etc. Gadaa leaders such

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as Dawe Gobbo of Borana, Anna Sorra of Guji, Makko-Bili of Mecha, Babbo Koyye of
Jimma and others established Gadaa centers and laid down cardinal laws in their respective
areas.

However, various Oromo groups kept their relations through the office of Abba Muda (the
father of anointment) seated at Madda Walabu and formed alliances during times of difficulty.
Besides, they obeyed similar ada (culture) and sera (law) through sending their delegates to
Madda-Walabu, the central chaffe until the pan-Oromo assembly was forbidden in 1900 due
to the political influence of the Ethiopian state.

In due course, Gadaa devised effective resource allocation formula including land. Land
holding system to regulate resource and their interaction among different clans is known as
the qabiyye system. The system established rights of precedence (seniority) in possession of
land. Accordingly, place names were given the names of pioneers as markers of qabiyye
rights.

5.4. Interaction and Integration across Ethnic and Religious Diversities

The political, social, and economic processes of the medieval period were the major factors
for the people's interactions across regions. Such interactions occurred during peace and
conflict times. The cases in point were the trade contacts and conflicts to control trade routes,
religious expansion, and territorial expansion and population movements. One of the major
consequences of the interactions in the medieval period particularly in the population
movement of the sixteenth century was the integration of peoples across ethnic and religious
diversities in Ethiopia and the Horn. Population movement of the period relatively covered
extensive geographical areas in the region. It involved diverse ethnic groups, cultures, and
religions from south to north and from east to west. It is apparent that territorial and religious
expansion by the Christian kingdom diffused Christian tradition from north to the south.
Similarly, the wars of Imam Ahmed and the population movements of the Argoba, the Afar
and the Somali caused the expansion of Islam into the central parts of Ethiopia.

One consequence of the Oromo population movement was that it put an end to the wars
between the Christian and Muslim states as well as the southward expansion of the Christian
state. At larger scale, the Oromo contact with diverse peoples in the sixteenth century brought
far-reaching integrations among peoples across ethnic and religious background. The Oromo
integrated non-Oromo through two adoption mechanisms: Guddifacha and Moggasa.

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Guddifacha refers to the adoption of a child by a foster parent. In this system, the child
enjoyed equal rights and privileges with a biological child. Likewise, Moggasa was a system
of adopting non-Oromos commonly known as Oromsu. Moggasa was the practice of
incorporation of individuals or groups to a clan through oath of allegiance with all the rights
and obligations that such membership entailed. Moggasa was undertaken by the Abba Gadaa
on behalf of the clan. The adopted groups gained both protection and material benefits. The
process significantly contributed to the social cohesions, national integration, and the revival
of long-distance trade.

The interactions also resulted in an exchange of socio-cultural values and institutions. A

number of peoples in the neighborhood of the Oromo adopted Gadaa system and Oromo
language. Likewise, the Oromo adopted and adapted cultures and traditions of the people
with whom they came into contact. The case in point is the adoption of monarchical systems
and the integration of the Oromo to the Christian and Muslim cultures. It is important to
mention the rise of nobles in the northern Oromo in politics particularly during the Gondar
period, Zemene-Mesafint and the making of modern Ethiopia.

5.5. Peoples and States in Eastern, Central, Southern and Western Regions It is not possible
in the space of a brief teaching module such as this to provide an exhaustive detail of
societies and states in eastern, central, southern, and western parts of the country in the period
covered by this unit. Thus, this section explores the history of some of the states (as
illustrations) in the period under consideration. Although there was no one criterion used to
select the states, due regard has been given to balance the number of states selected from each
region mentioned above. The selection of states for discussion also considered availability of
sources and treatment in earlier sections.

5.5.1. Peoples and States in the East

Somali

The Somali people inhabited vast territory in the Horn. For long, the Somali practiced
pastoral economy and moved between places for centuries possibly in search of sufficient
pasture. Ibn Said (1214-86), an Arab geographer, noted that Merca town located in the
southern Somali coast near Shabele River was a capital that brought large number of Somalis
together during the thirteenth century. The songs celebrating King Yeshaq's (r. 1413-30)
military success depicts that the Somali lived close to the Christian Kingdom. Somali

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contingents also played important role in the victories of the Sultanate of Adal against the
Christian kingdom.

Historically, a council known as shir governed the society. The decision making process was
highly democratic in which all-adult male were allowed equal access and participation. These
councils at sub-clan, clan and inter-clan level provided a governing structure that acted as an
enforcement of law and justice. The council governed wide-ranging affairs including resource
allocation, marriage, trade and crime. As a component of shir, the guurti (a council of elders)
was the highest political council mandated with resolving conflict and crisis.

Afar

The Afar predominantly lived in north-eastern Ethiopia and in northern Djibouti, although
some have also inhabited southern part of Eritrea. The Afar had an indigenous governance
system known as Makabanto, which has some elements of democracy. The Afar people
werefirst mentioned by Ibn Said. During the thirteenth century, they occupied the lowland
territory near Bab el-Mandeb.

The land inhabited by the Afars was home for many historical cities such as Maduna and
Abasa. Following the collapse of the power of Sultanate of Adal in the sixteenth century, the
Afar established their sultanates like Awsa, Girrifo, Tadjourah, Rahaito and Gobad. Awsa
Sultanate succeeded the earlier Imamate of Awsa in the middle Awash. The latter polity had
come into existence in 1577, when Mohammed Jasa moved his capital from Harar to Awsa.
At some point after 1672, Awsa declined and temporarily ended in conjunction with Imam
Umar Din bin Adam's recorded ascension to the throne. The Sultanate was subsequently re-
established by Kedafo around 1734, and was thereafter ruled by his Mudaito Dynasty.
Primary symbol of the Sultan was silver baton. Awsa’s economy mainly depended on
BatiGinda’e trade route. Later it became center of Islamic learning led by preachers like Tola
Hanfire.

Argoba

Early reference to the people of Argoba is insufficient. There are two versions on the origin
of the people of Argoba. The first version holds that they descended from the followers of the
Prophet Mohammed who came to the Horn of Africa and settled at Ifat. The second version
claims that the origin of the Argoba is not related with Muslim-Arab immigrants. More

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plausibly, the Argoba are one of the ancient peoples in the region that accepted Islam very
early from religious leaders who came from Arabia.

The Emirate of Harar

Harar is one of the earliest Muslim centers in the region of Ethiopia and the Horn. In the
sixteenth century, Harar became the capital of Walasma of Adal replacing Dakar until 1577
when it was shifted to Awsa due to the pressure from the Oromo. Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim
used Harar as a center from where he launched his campaigns into the Christian kingdom in
1527. Later during the reign of Emir Nur Mujahid, Harar became a walled city where the
sultanate of the Harari developed.

In the mid seventeenth century, Emir Ali ibn Da’ud (r. 1647-62) in cooperation with the
Oromo established a dynasty which was to rule for nearly two centuries and a half. It
wasstrengthened by Amirs like Abdul Shakur (1783-94). The Amir’s council, Majilis
engaged in supervising Mosque land, Waqf and offering other assistance to the Amir. The
emirate grew in importance to be a steady center of Islamic culture and power. Its economic
power grew as it controlled trade routes from the Gulf of Aden ports of Zeila and Berbera. Its
authority was established over the surrounding Oromo and Somali through trade, inter-
marriage, and expansion of Islamic teachings. Egyptians were attracted by such a prominence
that they sent an expeditionary force in 1875 and controlled the emirate for nearly a decade.
Although it was later restored, and ruled by Amir Abdulahi, as the last emir of the Sultanate
for two years, Emperor Menilek’s expansion to the region shortly followed in 1887.

5.5.2. Peoples and States in Central and South Central Parts

The Kingdom of Shewa

The Kingdom of Shewa was formed by a Menz ruler Negasi Kristos (r.1696-1703) and
eventually controlled districts like Asandabo, Debdabo, Mafud and Yifat. The second king
was Merid Azmatch Sebestie/Sebastyanos (r.1703-18). Abuye/ Abiyye (1718-45) made
Haramba, his capital and tried to subjugate the surrounding Oromo before he was killed by
the Karrayu Oromo. In addition to his unsuccessful attempts to control the Afar and Abitchu
Oromo, Amaha Iyesus/ Amayyes (r.1745-75) declared authority over Bulga, Efrata, Menz
and Tegulet with his capital at Doqaqit which later shifted to Ankober. Asfa-Wosen (r.1775-
1808) conquered Antsokia, Asbo, Gedem, Gishe, Merhabete, Morat and Shewa Meda. The
dynasty became very strong under Negus Sahle-Sellasie (r.1813-47), the grandfather of

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Emperor Menilek II. During his reign, many travelers visited Shewa and he even signed
“treaty of friendship and commerce” with the British in 1841. Shewa’s economy was mainly
based on agriculture supplemented by trade and craft. Near the capital, Ankobar, there was an
important trade center in Aleyu Amba administered by the Shewan court.

Gurage

The Gurage are divided into the Western and Northern Gurage. The first are also known as
Sebat Bet Gurage and include: Chaha, Muher, Ezha, Gumer (Inamor, Enner, Endegegna
andGyeto). The latter are variously known as Kistane, Aymallal or Soddo Gurage. Additional
groups included Dobbi, Gadabano and Masqan. The staple crop in Gurage land is enset. The
Gurage had traditional system of governance developed over the centuries. It is known as the
Yajoka Qicha among the Sebat Bet and the Gordanna Sera among the Kistane. There was,
however, no centralized leadership. Power was vested in clan or lineage groups. The descent
groups displayed corporate rights, obligations, and influence.

Kambata

By about 1550-70, four communities of separate origin coalesced to form the contemporary
state of Kambata which means, “this is the place” (where we live-as the Kambata believe in).
The first one, Kambata in the narrow sense, had its original homeland around Mount
Hambericho in the heartland of Kambata territory. The other three namely the Dubamo,
Donga and Tembaro trace their homeland from Sidama highlands.

If the above processes led to the formation of the nucleus of the state, the ethno-genesis of
Kambata also benefitted from Omotic and Semitic peoples who moved into the region at
different times. Emperor Yeshak (r.1413-30) annexed Kambata proper and controlled the
area between Omo and Bilate Rivers, which he incorporated into the Christian Ethiopian
Empire. In 1532, the region was captured by Imam Ahmed’s army, which furthered the
interaction of peoples. At the end of the sixteenth century, the groups were recognized as and
conscious of the name Kambata related to one of the seven dominant clans (Kambata Lamala)
in the region. The people were ensete farmers sharing similar culture and speaking the same
language called Kambatissa, which belongs to the Highland East Cushitic family together
with Qabena, Halaba, Hadiya, Sidama, Gedeo and Burji groups.

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The Kambata had a traditional administrative institution called the Hambericho Council. The
council had seven members each representing the seven clans in the region. With a king at
the top, the council ruled Kambata until the late nineteenth century.

Hadiya

The origin of the state of Hadiya goes back to the thirteenth century. It was mentioned in the
Kebre-Negest (Glory of the Kings) and it referred to the area west of the Islamic states in
thefederation of Zeila. The people were heterogeneous both linguistically and culturally.
Semitic-speaking agricultural people dominated north of the state while the southern part was
largely inhabited by Cushitic-speaking pastoral communities. There was a considerable
Muslim population. By about 1332, the ruler of the Christian kingdom, Amde-Tsion,
subjugated Hadiya after defeating its ruler, Amano who supported by a Muslim “prophet”
Bel’am aligned with the then leader of Ifat, Sabraddin to confront the Christian force.

From the thirteenth to the sixteenth centuries, Hadiya’s political importance was considerable
with sizable population and vast territory. In 1445, a Hadiya king called Mahiqo rebelled
against Emperor Zara-Yaqob (r.1434-68) and was consequently replaced by his uncle Bamo.
To stabilize the situation, Zara-Yaqob made a political marriage. Accordingly, Princess Elleni,
from Hadiya, who became an important historical figure, married Emperor ZaraYaqob.
Another Hadiya leader, Garad Aze refused to pay tribute to Emperor Sartsa-Dengel (r.1563-
98), but was suppressed in 1568/9.

The relations between Hadiya and the Christian Kingdom was interrupted following the wars
between the latter and Adal and the Oromo population movement until Hadiya's
incorporation into the Imperial state in the late nineteenth century. After these two major
historical events especially the latter, Hadiya’s population became more diverse. However,
descendants of the old Hadiya can be traced from four different linguistic clusters: the Oromo,
the Sidama, the Kabena and Alaba, and the Hadiya proper with its sub-groups-the Mareko,
Lemu, Soro, Shashogo and Badowacho. As with the Kambata and Sidama, the Hadiya
language belongs to the Highland East Cushitic family and their languages are intelligible to
members of these ethnic groups.

5.5.3. Peoples and States in the South

Sidama

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Historically, the Sidama have been living in the southern parts of Ethiopia occupying
lowlands of about 1500 m a.s.l in the Great East Africa Rift Valley that cut through Lakes
Hawasa and Abaya up to 3000 m a.s.l in the eastern Sidama highlands of Arbegona, Bansa
and Arroressa districts. Agriculture, although practiced traditionally, remained the basis
ofSidama’s economy. Enset and coffee are Sidama’s important food and cash crops
respectively.

The Sidama had an indigenous system of governance led by the Mote (king). The Mote
exercised political and administrative authority in consultation with the council of elders
called Songo. Songo members raised any agenda for discussion within the council and
submitted their decisions to the Mote for approval. Although there was no written
constitution, rules were known by heart through generations and practiced accordingly.

The cultural and ritual leader in Sidama society was the Woma. He was selected for his
ability as a peacemaker, bodily perfection, oratorical ability, wisdom and caution. The Woma
could not participate in war or cattle raiding as he was considered a man of peace. The Woma
handled cultural matters such as offering sacrifices to the spirits. He also performed other
rituals such as circumcision and marriage.

Sidama society was divided into generation-sets called Luwa. The system had five grades
each lasting for eight years. These are Darara, Fullassa, Hirbora, Wawassa and Mogissa.
Candidates for Luwa received a five-month military training and war songs like gerarsha
under the leadership of the gaden with his deputy called Ja’lawa. The gaden settled disputes
within his Luwa, besides handling the defense of Sidama society together with the Mote.

Another important institution of Sidama society is Seera. Seera was the social constitution of
the Sidama people governing social life based on the Sidama moral code, halale (the ultimate
truth) to judge the right and wrong. Although it was not written and defined with strict
enforcement mechanisms, people abide by the rules of halale to avoid curse or ostracization
by the society.

Gedeo

Contradictory traditions exist regarding the origin of the Gedeo people. The dominant
tradition relates the ancestors of the Gedeo to Daraso, who was the older brother of Gujo
(father of Guji Oromo). Accordingly, the seven major Gedeo clans descended from the seven
sons of Daraso. The clans were grouped in two houses, the first being the shole batte (senior

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house) where the first four clans belonged including more than 25 sub-clans and the
secondcalled sase batte (junior house) where the last three belonged having 10 sub-clans.
Each clan was exogamous and was assigned for particular duty such as ritual, traditional
medicine or leadership.

The Gedeo had a culture called baalle, a traditional governance system that worked with age
classes and ranking. The baalle had seven grades with a 10-year period each creating a 70-
year cycle. Sasserogo was a federation of three territories; Sobbho, Ributa and Rikuta sharing
one Abba Gadaa who leaves office every eight years to be replaced by a new holder with the
next age set at baalle ceremony. It was at this ceremony that all positions ranging from the
top, Abba Gada down to Hayitcha were assumed. Like the neighboring Sidama, with whom
they shared a very close language, their economy was based on the cultivation of enset.

Konso

The name Konso is invariably used to refer one of the ancient peoples in Ethiopia and the
Horn who spoke affa Konso (Konso language) and their land. The literal meaning of the term
is a “heavily forested hill/ area.” A century ago the highlands of Konso, which was covered
by dense forest, had been the traditional home of Konso people while the low-lying
environment along Sagan and Woyito river valley served as hunting grounds. Konso attracted
the attention of local and international researchers interested in human evolution, as it is one
of the earliest human settlement sites in the world.

Agriculture was and remains to be the major economic activity of the Konso. Farmers
practiced a fairly balanced and integrated system of specialized agricultural technology. The
location of mainland Konso within mosquito infested hot and dry lowlands at the edge of the
Great East African Rift Valley led farmers to adopt intensive agriculture. Farmers combined
crop production with cattle breeding. At the same time, they adopted soil conservation
techniques notably the construction of terraces, which proved helpful to convert rugged and
hilly areas into permanent cultivation. Farmers were also adept at selecting plant varieties that
withstood harsh climatic conditions. Such complex agricultural practices enabled farmers to
produce sufficient food on small plot of land for their sustenance. Besides agriculture,
Konso’s economy depended on bee keeping and craftworks. All of these activities attest the
ingenuity of local adaptation strategies.

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Until the late nineteenth century, the Konso people lived in walled villages (paletas) which
were further divided into wards called Kanta. There was no central authority who acted as
sovereign power over the three regions. Each village was ruled by a council of elders called
hayyota who were selected through direct participation of male members of the village.
Membership to the council was not hereditary but rotated every eighteen years.

At the core of the socio-political organization of the Konso appear to be the clan or lineage
group and generation set, Tselta.The Konso were divided into nine exogamous clans namely
Toqmaleta, Elayta, Saudata, Pasanta, Kertita, Ishalayta, Mahaleta, Tikisayta and Argamyta.
The Tselta had fixed cycle of years starting from birth, although they varied across
villageseighteen in Karat, nine in Takati and five in Turo. The major function of the
generation set was informing the responsibilities expected of each age group.

5.5.4. Peoples and States in South-western Part

Wolayta

The name Wolayta denotes a specific ethnic group in south-western Ethiopia and their
powerful kingdom, which first emerged as a state in the thirteenth century. According to local
traditions, before the emergence of Wolayta as a political unit, the area was inhabited by
different communities such as the Badia, Badiagadala and Aruja. The state flourished in the
late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries because of successful wars that the Wolayta
fought against their neighbors and the material, human and territorial gains thereof. At the
apex of the social and political hierarchy was the Kawo (king), assisted by a council of
advisors. From the thirteenth to the late nineteenth centuries, two successive dynasties ruled
Wolayta: the Wolayta-Malla and the Tigre. Founded in the thirteenth century by Motalami,
the Wolayta-Malla seems to have ruled until the end of the fifteenth century. It was then
superseded by the Tigre dynasty, so called because it was supposedly founded by Tigreans
from northern Ethiopia.

The land of Wolayta is known for its fertility and moderate climate, with green vegetation
cover for the most part of the year. All land was nominally owned by the king who granted it
to his dependents. In practice, land relationships were ordered according to three basic
principles of social organization i.e. kinship, polity and social status. Accordingly, rights
overland were vested in the lineage group, the crown (royal estate) and the nobility. There
were also communal lands allocated for grazing and social gatherings to which all members

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of the society except artisans had equal access. The king rewarded people with land on
grounds of gallant deeds in battle and other important contributions to the state. By grants of
land or by threats of dispossession the reigning monarch ensured loyalty to the state. Except
those who worked on the royal estate, landholders paid tribute to the king. The dominant food
crop was enset (Enset Ventricosum).

Kafa

According to traditions, this powerful kingdom emerged in the fourteenth century. Around
mid-seventeenth century, the state had come to prominence. The ruling Minjo dynasty and
the medieval kingdom of Ennarya had close contact. The Oromo expansion might have
forced the ruling house of Ennarya to flee south of the Gojeb which as a result brought
Christianity and the royal title tato to Kafa.

As with a number of Cushitic and some Semitic peoples of the south, Kafa’s economy was
based on the cultivation of enset on peasant farms supported by trade. Besides working on
their land, peasants rendered free labor service and tilled royal estates with the support of
slaves who were acquired through raiding or trading, or as payment for debt. As far as trade
is concerned, a prosperous commerce took place with Oromo states of the Gibe region. Major
trade items, such as musk, coffee, slaves, Ivory, gold, honey-wax, and civet were exported
via markets like Tonkolla, Tiffa, Qeya etc.

From the seventeenth to the eighteenth centuries, the kingdom expanded to Bonesho,
Mashengo, Maji, Nao, She and Chara. At the apex of the administration of the kingdom was
the Tato with his major political center at Bonga. Another seat of power was Andarcha, seven
miles to southeast. The Tato was assisted by a council of seven advisors called Mikrecho.
The Mikrecho served to moderate the power of the king but they played important roles in
succession as well.

The Kafa had a tradition of digging deep trenches called Kuripo as defensive barrier. The
Gojeb also served as natural protection against external invasion and it might have
contributed to their relative independence until 1897.

Yem

The Yem state was located along the eastern banks of the Gibe or to the northeast of the Kafa
kingdom. Yem’s economy combined agriculture, trade and crafts. Initially, an indigenous

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dynasty called Dida or Halmam-Gamma ruled Yem from its palace in Dudarkema/Zimarma
near Oya, in the vicinity of Bor Ama Mountain. Besides being at the top of the political
ladder, the Amno (king) of Yem acted as a chief priest with attributes of divinity. A state
council of 12 members named Astessor with its chairperson Waso assisted the Amno in
administering the state. Erasho were the provincial governors and they were responsible for
digging ditches called bero and erecting nearly fifty-meter wooden or iron pillars at the center
of the kingdom around Brisi Bita so that the war father, the Nomiaw, could patrol the
surroundings. Special messengers, Wosi carried orders from Amno down to district chiefs,
Gagna and vice versa. In the fourteenth century, the last King Oyokam/Amo Dasha was
overthrown by people from the north who founded a new dynasty called Mowa (Howa) with
its center at Angari. In the nineteenth century, the neighboring state of Jimma Abba Jifar tried
to control the Yem which itself was absorbed into the imperial state of Ethiopia under
Emperor Menilek II towards the end of the century.

Gamo

Historically, the Gamo inhabited areas from Lakes Chamo and Abaya to the Gughe Mountain
and beyond. Gamo’s physical landscape can be divided into two: the geze (highland) and the
bazo (lowland). The highlands were densely populated while people who escaped coercion
by the state at the political center largely settled the lowlands which also served as hunting
fields. A set of interrelated indigenous laws called the Woga defined land-use in the Gamo
highlands. The laws had their origin in a belief that everything was connected and bound in a
delicate balance. Together they formed a natural resource management system that governed
everything from interpersonal relationships to the conservation and preservation of pasture,
forest, soil, and water.

The cultivation of enset had been central to the subsistence of Gamo highlands while maize
and sweet potato were staple food crops in the lowlands. Other crops grown in the highlands
included barely, wheat, teff, peas, beans and cabbage.Besides farming, most farmers
keptcattle for food, farming and manure, which they needed for successful agriculture. Craft
making, pot making, tanning and metalworking were other modes of the subsistence system.
These people had developed their own indigenous knowledge and technologies in
manufacturing different types of tools and weapons, traditional musical and funeral
instruments, weaving colorful textiles etc.

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The first mention of the Gamo in written records dates back to the fifteenth century in the
praise songs of king Yishak (r.1413-30). The song mentioned the Gamo as one of the
tributary states to the monarch. The Gamo maintained relative autonomy from control by the
Christian Kingdom after war with the Muslim sultanates weakened the latter. Between the
sixteenth and the nineteenth centuries, the Gamo lived in scattered settlements and organized
in different communities called dere. The dere were politically autonomous villages (units)
but shared three essential features. These were: 1) each dere had kawo (hereditary ruler) who
also offered sacrifices and symbolized the unity of the people. 2) every dere had its own
initiates called halaqa and; (3) every dere had its own assembly place called dubusha, where
communal matters were discussed and disputes solved.

Access to politico-ritual status among the Gamo people was made possible through initiation
or election and baira, a system of seniority. The two systems functioned both in opposition to
each other as well as complementarily. Through initiation or election the dulata (assembly)
elected married men to positions that were known by different names from one dere to
another. In some dere it was called halaqa, in others it was known by the name huduga or
maga. Election to this office was open to all married men and accorded representatives with
provisional political authority. The dulata had an institutional authority to give decisions on
different social, political and many other important matters.

The assembly had also the power to impose sanctions as penalty on individuals or groups
who committed serious crimes or violated the community’s social regulations and cultural
values. The second system, the baira, was ascribed and largely based on genealogical
seniority according to primogeniture. The Gamo people were distributed in agnatic clans each
having a system of individual genealogical hierarchy. The baira (senior) of the clan had a
privilege over lineage members. The baira made animal sacrifice on behalf of their juniors at
all levels of the community. The senior sacrificer of the dere is the kawo. The concept of
kawo refers to the first rank status, with variable attributes and he was legitimatized by birth
and primogeniture. The kawo represented the unity of dere and played an important role in
relations with the outside world.

Dawuro

Dawuro’s topography mostly is mountainous and plateau at the central, and lowland and
plain at Gojeb and Omo river basins. The land is divided into three climatic zones. These are
geziya (highland), dashuwa (mid-altitude) and gad’a (lowland). Such climatic conditions

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enriched Dawuro with a variety of tree species and natural vegetation/forest. The livelihood
of Dawuro people is based on mixed agricultural activities. The language of Dawuro people
is Dawurotsuwa, a sub-group of the Omotic family.

Historically, Dawuro land had been inhabited by three major clans namely Malla, Dogolla,
and Amara which altogether were regarded as Gok’as or K’omos. The area was also home for
people that came from neighboring Omotic states such as Wolayta, Kucha, Gamo, Gofa, and
Kafa and from places like Gondar, Gojjam, Tigray and Shewa. A political alliance through
royal marriages was one important factor that facilitated the movement of people from
neighbouring territories into Dawuro.

By about 1700, the Kawuka dynasty had created a big state from a great number of petty
chieftainships on the territory between the Gojeb and Omo rivers in the north, east and south
and the Kafa high mountains in the west. Among the rulers of the Kawuka dynasty of
Dawuro, Kati Irashu and Kati Halala were famous. Kati Halala was the grandson of the king
of Kafa. During his reign, Dawuro incorporated Konta. He is known for his stone
fortifications, which he oversaw to defend his territories from outsiders.

Ari

The Omo River basin had been home to different groups of people since early times. These
included the Ari, Dasenech, Tsemayi, Erbore, Hamer, Surma, Meniet, Nyangatom, Bodi,
Male, etc. Major economic activities in the region were sedentary agriculture, pastoralism
and handcrafts.

The language of the Ari people is called Araf, which is one branch of the Omotic language
family. The people were sedentary agriculturalist. The society was organized into ten
independent clan based chiefdoms. Hereditary clan chief known as Babi headed each of these
chiefdoms. The clan chief was entitled with both political and ritual authorities over the
people of his respective domain. The clan chief was assisted by officially appointed
prominent figures in the administration of the political unit. The assistants included Godimis
(religious leaders), Zis (village heads) and Tsoikis (intelligence agents of Babi).

5.5.5. Peoples and States in the West

Berta and Gumuz

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The Berta people inhabit the present Beni-Shangul Regional State. The earliest record of
Berta settlement in this region dates from the sixteenth century. The Berta people speak the
Berta language as their mother tongue. It is a tonal language classified as a branch of the
Nilo-Saharan linguistic group. In addition to the Berta, the Beni-Shangul is home for the
Gumuz. They are mentioned by the Scottish explorer James Bruce. He notes that they hunted
with bows and arrows, a custom that survives today. The Gumuz speak the Gumuz language,
which belongs to the Nilo-Saharan family. It is subdivided in several dialects. Islamic
influence had been strong on the Berta and other Nilotes because of their trade and social
contacts with the northern Sudan.

Anywa

Historically, the Anywa predominantly inhabited areas along Pibor, Sobat, Gila, Akobo,
Agwei, Oboth, Baro, and Alwero Rivers on the western borderlands of the present-day
Gambella region. The people speak Dha-anywaa, a sub-branch of the Nilo- Saharan language
family. The Anywa had an indigenous administrative system whereby each village lived
under a chief called Kuaari who along with the nobles, Nyiye, managed the distribution of
farm and grazing fields, settled disputes etc with the community. Although local traditions
mention a certain person by the name Oshoda as the founding father of the Anywa, the
administration of the territory was not centralized. Economically, they are engaged in
smallscale cultivation, fishing and hunting. While most Anywa practiced Christianity, they
also believed in traditional religion.

Nuer

Historically, the Nuer lived in areas that extended across the savannas and marshes of the
Bahr el-Ghazal and the Upper Nile regions of the Sudan. Since the nineteenth century, they
had been largely settled in the plains of Gambella along the Sobat and Baro Rivers and parts
of the Sudan. The mainstay of Nuer’s economy was cattle breeding supplemented by crop
production. The Nuer had developed a rather complex spiritual culture around their cattle,
which were used as bride wealth as well. The Nuer had an age-set system combining social
and political functions. Nuer boys had to pass through a rigorous test and a series of rites
connected with it before they were initiated into adulthood.

Majang

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The Majang formed the southern end of the Nilo-Saharan settlement that covered the
escarpment of the Oromo inhabited highlands to the Baro plains. Linguistic evidence relates
the origin of the Majang to the Boma plateau in South Sudan. Gradually, they moved
northwards and settled in forested areas of western Ethiopia. By mid twentieth century, their
settlement extended to areas near Dembi-Dollo in the north. Economically, the Majang
practiced shifting cultivation and animal husbandry. Other economic activities of the Majang
include beekeeping, hunting and fishing.

The Kunama

The Kunama people also called the Baza are one of the ancient inhabitants of western Eritrea
on the Gash and Tekkeze Rivers and in today’s northwestern and western Tigray. The Arab
traveller al-Ya‛qubi in 872 A.D. mentions the kingdom of Baza, which is a self-designation
of the Kunama. The Kunama had a customary institution called sanga-anene mandated with
the administration of the society. Other responsibilities of the sanga-anene included granting
asylum to new comers in the sanctuary of their compounds and performing rituals as part of
reconciliation process in case of homicides. The office of the sanga-anene was held by male
members of the society. The office was transmitted hereditarily from the eldest brother to the
The mainstay of Kunama’s economy is mixed agriculture. Agriculture is based on the use of
hoe, spades, sickles and the ox (camel)-drawn plough. Signs of past practices of terraced
agriculture are still visible in some areas of the Kunama. The staple crop among the Kunama
is sorghum (kina), which also has a ceremonial value. Other crops grown are millet (bortaor
beca), pulses and maize (afokina). The Kunama also keep livestock mainly goats, sheep, oxen,
and camels. next born through matrilineal line.

5.6. The Gondarine Period and Zemene-Mesafint

5.6.1. The Gondarine Period

A. Political Developments

The period of Gondar began from the reign of Emperor Sartsa-Dengle when the political
center of Ethiopian emperors shifted to Gondar area. Emperor Sartsa-Dengle established
royal camp at Enfranz in 1571. Emperor Susenyos also tried to establish his capital near
Gondar in such places as Qoga, Gorgora, Danqaz and Azazo. Gondar was founded in 1636
when Fasiledas established his political seat there.

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Gondar achieved its glory during the reigns of its first three successive emperors: Fasiledas
(r.1632–67), Yohannes I (r.1667-82) and Iyasu I (r.1682- 1706). Among the major reforms
during these periods were the restoration of Orthodox Church as state religion, and the
establishment of a royal prison at Amba Wahni to solve problems stemming from power
rivalry. Emperor Yohannes I and his council established a separate quarter for Muslims at
Addis Alem. His successor, Iyasu I, reformed land tenure system, introduced a system of land
measurement in Begemder, taxes, and customs, and revised the Fetha Negest (the civil code).

The assassination of Iyasu the Great by a faction under the leadership of his own son,
TekleHaymanot, ushered in political instability in Gondar involving intrigues and poisoning
of reigning monarchs. Tekle-Haymanot was crowned in 1706 before the death of his father
and was in turn assassinated by Tewoflos in 1708. Tewoflos was again killed in 1711 by
Yostos, who was also poisoned in 1717 and replaced by Dawit III, who himself was poisoned
and replaced by Bakafa in 1721. Bakafa tried to restore stability with the support of his
follower and his wife Etege Mentewab until he was incapacitated in 1728. The Gondarine
Period also witnessed increased involvement of the Oromo in Imperial politics and the army
as will be discussed shortly.

From 1728 to 1768, Etege Mentewab together with her brother Ras-Bitwaded Walda Le’ul
(1732-1767) dominated the Gondarine court politics. Walda Le’ul was influential during the
reigns of Iyasu II (1730-55) and Iyoas (1755-69). Following his death in 1767, Etege
Mentewab was challenged by Wubit Amito, her daughter-in-law from Wollo. To counter the
growing power of the Wollo Oromo in the royal court, Mentewab sought the alliance of Ras
Mika'el Sehul of Tigray who was politically astute and militarily powerful. Mika'el Sehul
succeeded in stabilizing the situation but refused to return to Tigray although demanded by
Iyoas. This was followed by the killing of Iyoas and his replacement by an old man Yohannes
II by Ras Mika'el. Soon Ras Mika'el killed Yohannes II and put his son TaklaHaymanot II
(1769-77) on power. This marked the onset of the period of Zemene-Mesafint (1769-1855).

B. Achievements of the Gondarine Period

Gondar became the center of state administration, learning, commerce, education, art, and
crafts for more than two centuries. The first three kings were successful not only in political
affairs but also in cultural developments. Gondar had great influence on the country’s cultural
developments. This enabled Gondar to repeat the splendors of Aksum and Lalibela. The

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cultural achievements of the period led some writers to describe Gondarine period in history
as Ethiopian Renaissance.

Architecture: when Gondar served as a permanent capital, for about one hundred fifty years,
Ethiopian kings built significant secular buildings like castles, bridges, residences, bath,
library, towers, fortifications and churches of various size and shapes. In the city’s compound,
in addition to the most impressive building known as Fasil Gemb, there are different palaces
corresponding to Emperor Fasiledas, Yohannes I, Iyasu I, Dawit III, Bakafa and Regent
Queen Mentewab. The Gondarine style of architecture may have started before the reign of
emperor Fasiledas during the reign of Emperor Sartsa-Dengle atabout 1586, as could be seen
from his palace at Guzara near Enfranz. The architectural styles of Fasiledas castle usually
have two strides and almost square, circular domed corner towers. Not only castles, but the
building of bridges are said to be predate the reign of Fasiledas. Emperor Sartsa-Dengel is
said to have built a very fine bridge near his palace at Guzara, and Emperor Susenyos
likewise erected a bridge over Blue Nile at Alata.

Painting: this period is known as for the production of a wealth of religious paintings on
manuscripts and on wood, ornaments, weapons and other accessories. The churches built by
Queen Mentwab were known for their beautiful paintings, cross and art works.

Literature: The Imperial and provincial scriptoria produced a great number of manuscripts.
Besides the Gospels, the Miracles of Mary, the Lives of Ethiopian Saints and the Litanies,
many other kinds of illuminated manuscripts were also produced. Gondar is also known for
its traditional medicine, music and poetry.

Trade and Urbanization: Gondar was a commercial center that connected long distance
trade routes of the southern region with Massawa and Metemma in the Ethio-Sudan border.
Gold and salt were used as medium of exchange. Daily markets were commonly held in the
city. With spread of urbanization, the city became residences of foreign communities like
Indians, Greeks and Armenians. The city had an estimated 60,000-70,000 population.
Inaddition to its political and commercial importance, it served as religious center of
Christians, Muslims and Bete-Israel. Besides, it served as the center of Ethiopian Orthodox
Church until the middle of the nineteenth century. Many of the Orthodox churches which
served as education centers, known for their excellence in teaching aqwaqwam, liturgical
chanting were centered at Gondar.

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5.6.2. The Period of Zemene-Mesafint (1769-1855)

Zemene-Mesafint refers to the period when actual political power was in the hands of
different regional lords. The period lasted from the time Ras Michael Sehul "assassinated"
king Iyoas in 1769 to 1855, when Kasa Hailu was crowned as Tewodros II.

Ras Mika’el who was a king-maker in the period attempted to dominate the other regional
lords. These measures made him highly unpopular because of which coalitions of lords of
Gojjam, Amhara, Lasta and Wollo fought and defeated him at the battle of Sarba-Kussa in
1771. Under the reigns of his successors, there was relative stability but several regional lords
evolved. The main political regions that Zemene-Mesafint lords ruled were Tigray, Semen,
Dembiya, Begemedir, Lasta, Yejju, Wollo, Gojjam and Shewa. When compared to each other
the “Yejju dynasty” was the leading power during the Zemen-Mesafint with the center at
Debre-tabor. Ali Gwangul (Ali I or Ali Talaq) was considered as the founder of “Yejju
dynasty” in 1786.

Yejju rule reached its zenith under Gugsa Marso (r.1803-1825) who made incessant struggle
against Ras Walde-Silassie of Enderta and Dejjazmatch Sabagadis Woldu of Agame. In 1826,
Gugsa's successor, Yimam (r.1825-8), defeated Hayle-Mariam Gebre of Simen. Maru of
Dambiya was also killed at the battle of Koso-Ber in 1827. The period of Zemene Mesafint
was brought to an end by Kasa Hailu of Qwara through a series of battles that lasted from
1840s to 1855.

Major features of Zemene-Mesafint include:

 Absence of effective central government;

 The growing power and influence of the regional warlords;

 The domination of Yejju lords over other lords in northern Ethiopia; rivalry and
competition among regional lords to assume the position of king-maker;

 Establishment of fragile coalitions to advance political interests;

 Ethiopian Orthodox Church was unable to play its traditional role of unifying the state due
to doctrinal disputes;

 Revival of foreign contacts that ended the “closed-door” policy

In addition to the above features, there were developments in terms of literature, arts,
architecture etc during the period.

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