Chapter 5: Map Symbols, Visual Variables, Color

Uli Ingram
In this chapter, the materials provide context on map symbols and
visual variables. You will learn about map symbols, visual
variables, and color as they relate to cartography. The lesson also
provides information on two-color theories, components of color
and color models. You will learn how to consider your audience
and about subjective reactions to color to help in the map creation
process.
5.1: Map Symbols

Map symbols are graphic marks used to encode thematic

information on the map. Map symbols provide a graphic, simplified
representation of the environment and come in many different
forms.

Figure 1: Example of Map Symbols

Geometric Symbols

Geometric symbols are commonly used map symbols. Geometric

symbols do not visually resemble the phenomenon being mapped as
they are considered abstract representations. Geometric symbols are
typically pointed symbols and require a legend to understand since
they do not resemble the phenomena. Geometric symbols are
circles, triangles, squares, crosses, and symbols with crosshairs,
dots, or other symbols embedded within.

Figure 2:
Examples of Geometric Symbols

Pictographic Symbols
Pictographic symbols visually resemble the phenomenon being
mapped. The pictographic symbols typically represent point data
sets. A major benefit of pictographic symbols is that they may be
understood without a legend and since many pictographic symbols
are so widely used they may be immediately interpretable by the
map reader. The use of pictographic symbols will add to the theme
or memorability of your map.

Figure 3: Examples of Pictograms

6.2: Spatial Arrangement

Arrangement of spatial phenomena influences how they are

symbolized on a map. There are four spatial arrangements:
continuity, dimensionality, scale, and level of measurement.
Continuity

Continuity refers to whether an item is discrete in nature having

well-defined boundaries and locations or continuous in nature
where the measurements exist along a surface or continual. The
discrete phenomenon is symbolized with points, lines, and
polygons. The continuous spatial phenomenon is symbolized with
surfaces, shading, and hatching to name a few.

Figure 4: Example of Discrete Phenomenon

Figure 5: Example of Continuous Phenomenon

Dimensionality
Dimensionality refers to the different dimensions that are
symbolized in different ways with respect to spatial data. Review
the chart for details.
Scale
The scale is defined as the ratio at which the earth has been reduced
in order to be placed on the map. Scale can determine the
dimensionality of the spatial phenomenon. For instance in Figure 6,
at a scale of 1 to 250,000, the boundary of the city can be shown
with two dimensions because of that scale there is sufficient detail
to warrant the use of a more complex symbol. If we zoom out to a
scale of 1 to 10,000,000 we can switch the dimensionality of the
city boundary to 0 dimensions and therefore can be represented
using a point.
As another example in Figure 7, at a scale of 1 to 10,000,000, a
river will be represented as a one-dimensional object and would be
best visualized using a line symbol. However, if we zoom in
significantly to a scale of 1 to 500 we can see the banks of the river
along with the body of the river. Therefore we can represent the
river using two-dimensional symbols such as a polygon.

Figure 6: Scale of 1 to 250,000 Figure

7: Scale of 1 to 10,000,000

5.3: Level of Measurement

The level of measurement refers to which category the data values

fall within: nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio. If the data is of
nominal type, which means that its goal is to uniquely identify
items and show them as different from other items, then we should
use a different hue for each type of item in the data set. On the
legend, there should be spaces between the representative patches to
show that there is no continuity between the different types of items
in that they are unique.
If the data is an ordinal, interval, or ratio type you should use a
single hue to represent the items as they are of a single type, but
you should vary the saturation or value to represent their change in
order or magnitude. In the legend, there should be no spaces
between the representative patches to represent that the data exists
along a continuum. The exception is if the data has naturally
occurring gaps, then you would want to include gaps between the
patches in the legend.

Figure 8: Levels of Measurement

There are three types of data and ways to symbolize that data: there
is unipolar data, bipolar data, and balanced data.
Unipolar Data

Unipolar data is data that has no natural dividing point. If we

wanted to represent the number of bales of hay per acre there are no
meaningful divisions and a continuum of the number of bales of
hay. Simply start with zero bales of hay and increase. For this, you
will choose a single hue and vary the saturation or value depending
on the change of magnitude or order of the data.
 Figure 9: Unipolar Data

Bipolar Data

Bipolar data has a natural and meaningful dividing point. For

example, if we look at population change between the years 2000
and 2012 we can probably classify each state where it is gained
population, had no change in the population, or lost population. For
bipolar data, we should use a divergent color ramp. For the natural
or dividing point, it is recommended to choose a gray color or a
color with equal parts saturation of the other two hues on the color.

Figure 10: Bipolar Data

Balanced Data

Balanced data has complementary phenomena. We can show the

ratio of Democrats to Republicans in a voting district. For balance
data, we should use a divergent color ramp.

Figure 11: Balanced Data

5.4: Visual Variables

Visual variables are distinctions that we can use to create and

differentiate symbols on a map. There are 10 visual distinctions
available for symbolization: location, size, shape, orientation, focus,
arrangement, texture, saturation, hue, and value. This section will
cover each one of these nine distinctions. Nine of the ten visual
variables will be discussed in the context of whether it is most
useful for qualitative or quantitative mapping.
Visual Variable Location

The location visual variable is the position of the object and the
environment. Location can be determined in absolute, relative, or
cognitive terms. In any case, location determines where in our
environment the object exists. No matter whether the data is
qualitative or quantitative in nature in order to be map it must have
a location.
Qualitative Visual Variables

Qualitative visual variables are used for nominal data. The goal of
qualitative visual variables is to show how entities differ from each
other. Qualitative visual variables show the grouping of similar
entities.
Hue: Hue, more commonly known as color, represents a
wavelength on the visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Hue is great for identifying items as unique, or of a type of item.
Hue creates a perception of groups or likeness. The example images
in Figure 11 show how hue can be applied to data with 0 to 3
dimensions.

Fig
ure 12: Hue

Visual Variable – Orientation: The orientation visual variable

changes the orientation of the object and creates a perception of
group or likeness.
 Fi
gure 13: Examples of Orientation

Visual Variable - Shape: The shape visual variable identifies an

item as unique or of a type. The shape visual variable refers to a
point symbol although it can be arranged to resemble a line and
placed inside an area or three-dimensional shape. The shape does
not have to be a geometric form; it can also be a pictorial form.

Fi
gure 14: Examples of Shape

Visual Variable – Arrangement: The arrangement visual variable

refers to the placement of elements composing a pattern or a
texture. Arranging patterns or textures differently can create a
perception of a single unique item or a group of items.

Figure 15: Examples of Arrangement

Visual Variable – Texture: Texture refers to the symbols covering

an area. Textures identify items as unique or of a type.
 Fig
ure 16: Examples of Texture

Visual Variable - Focus: Focus represents uncertainty by making

the symbols look fuzzy or out of focus. The more uncertain a value
is the fuzzier or out of focus it should look.

Figure 17: Examples of Focus

Quantitative Visual Variables

Now consider quantitative visual variables. Quantitative visual

variables are used to display ordinal, interval, or ratio data. The goal
of the quantitative visual variable is to show relative magnitude or
order between entities.
Visual Variable – Size: The size of visual variable changes the size
of the symbol to imply relative levels of importance. Line thickness
implies relative flow levels in the case of road traffic or water flow
through a river.

Fig
ure 18: Examples of Size

Visual Variable – Value, Saturation: The visual variable's value

and saturation represent different magnitudes or order in a data
value. It is important that you only very the saturation or value but
not both for a given hue. This represents a single variable, which is
represented by a single hue, with different quantitative values,
which are represented by a difference in saturation or value.

Figure 19: Examples of Value and Saturation

Visual Variable – Focus: Again, the focus visual variable

represents uncertainty in quantitative values.

Figure 20: Examples of Focus

Nine Visual Variables

Figure 21 shows the nine visual variables in a single graphic for you
to compare and contrast.
 Figure 21: Nine
Visual Variables

Matrix

This is a matrix that matches visual variables with attribute types

that you can use for reference. The white value represents a poor
matching of visual variable and attribute type and therefore, the use
of visual variable for that attribute should be avoided. The light
grey value represents a marginal matching of the visual variable at
the attribute type it should be used with careful consideration. The
yellow value represents a good matching of the visual variable with
the attribute type that should be the most common paring.

Example of a Matrix

Interval Ordinal Nominal

Location Good Good Good

Size Good Good Good

Focus Poor Good Poor

Value Marginal Good Poor

Saturation Marginal Good Poor

Hue Marginal Marginal Good

Texture Marginal Marginal Good

Orientation Marginal Marginal Good

Arrangement Poor Poor Marginal

Shape Poor Poor Good

5.5: Color and Cartography

Color is an extremely valuable tool for cartographers. Color grabs
the attention of your map reader and engages them with your map.
Color also provides more design options than black and white
printing and allows you to be more expressive and creative with
your map creations. To maximize the effectiveness of our maps we
must employ color in a proper fashion and beware of the following
pitfalls: color complicates the map and makes reproduction more
difficult.
Printing in color is quite a bit more expensive the printing and black
and white. Additionally, if colors are used incorrectly it may only
confuse your users or have users perceive the map as being
unattractive. People may perceive colors differently depending on
their own biases or their culture. So while colors can really increase
the effectiveness of our map they must use be with care and careful
consideration.
What is Color?

The discussion of color begins with watching the short video, Tour
of the EMS 05 - Visible Light Waves (4:50), which gives us a tour
of the visual portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Electromagnetic Spectrum

To review, the visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum