Unit 1

Review of Fourier Transform

and Fourier Series

Taught by:
Dr. Prateek Verma
Assistant Professor
DYPIU Akurdi
1
Communication Systems
• Communication is the process of establishing connection or link between two points for
information exchange.

• The electronic equipments which are used for communication purpose are called as communication
equipments.

• Different electronic equipments when combine together form a communication system e.g. mobile
communication.

• It started since 1840s with line telegraphy, and with invention of transistors, Integrated circuits and
other semiconductor devices it became a popular field.

• With invention of satellites and fibre optics, it is reaching new heights and being used widespread.

2
Elements of a Communication System
• The communication process can be described as:
• Generation of thought pattern or image at the origin.

• The message is passed through the transducer to convert it into a time varying
electrical signal e.g. microphone

• The transmitter process the electrical signal from different aspects e.g. modulation.

3
Contd.
• Then the signal is passed through the channel or medium from transmitter to receiver.
The channel acts like a physical connection between transmitter and receiver.

• The main function of the receiver is to reproduce the message signal in electrical form
from distorted received signal i.e. demodulation.

• Destination is the final stage where the electrical signal is converted into original
form.

4
Analog Signal
• The signal which varies smoothly and continuously with time.

• These signals are defined for every value of time and they take on continuous values in a
given time interval.

• The vast majority of signals in the real world around us are analog in nature e.g.
temperature of a certain location may vary over a continuous range.

5
Digital Signal
• It is represented by a sequence of numbers where each number is representing the signal
magnitude at an instant of time. The resulting signal is called a digital signal.

• Digital messages are constructed with a finite number of symbols.

• We can use any number system to represent a digital signal e.g. binary number system.

• Here in Fig. waveform is a pulse train with 0 V and +5 V.

6
Need for Fourier Transform
• For transmission purpose, there is need of electrical signal because all equipments and
devices are electrical in nature.

• Therefore, non-electrical information signal is first converted into electrical signal.

• A signal is generally given in time domain, which tells about the amplitude of the signal at
a particular time instant.

• But if we want to know the frequency component present in the signal, we need some
mathematical tools.

• Fourier series and Fourier transform are such mathematical tools which are used to
analyze the signal (frequency domain signal).
7
Complex Numbers
• A complex number (a, b) or a + jb can be represented graphically by a point whose Cartesian
coordinates are (a, b) in a complex plane. Let us denote this complex number by z so that
𝒛 = 𝒂 + 𝒋𝒃
• The numbers a and b (the abscissa and the ordinate) of z are the real part and the imaginary part,
respectively, of z. They are also expressed as
Re z = a and Im z = b

• Note that in this plane all real numbers lie on the

horizontal axis, and all imaginary numbers lie on the
vertical axis.

• Complex numbers may also be expressed in terms of

polar coordinates. If (r, θ) are the polar coordinates
of a point z = a + jb, then 𝑎 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 and b =
𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃.

8
Sinusoids
• Sinusoids are the time-varying sine or cosine functions (or signals).

• Here, the function is representing an ac voltage i.e. 𝒗 𝒕 = 𝑽𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝎𝒕.

• Here the voltage from peak to peak will be 𝑽𝑷−𝑷 = 𝑽𝒎 + 𝑽𝒎 = 𝟐𝑽𝒎

9
 Contd.
• Here, the signal is a periodic signal ranging from −∞ to ∞.

• If we shift this signal towards the left by an amount 𝑛𝑇 then new signal will be 𝑣(𝑡 + 𝑛𝑇), which will be
equal to 𝑣 𝑡 .

• If we shift this signal towards the right by an amount 𝑛𝑇 then new signal will be 𝑣(𝑡 − 𝑛𝑇), which will
be equal to 𝑣 𝑡 .

• If the above two conditions are satisfied then the signal is

called a periodic signal.

• The minimum time in which the signal repeats itself is called

the fundamental time period.

10
 Contd.
• We know, 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓. Here, 𝜔 is the angular freq. (radians/sec) and 𝑓 is freq. in Hz.

• From here it can be said that, 𝑓 = 𝜔/2𝜋. Also, 𝑓 = 1/𝑇 where T is the time period of the signal.

• Therefore, 𝑇 = 2𝜋/𝜔 or 𝜔 = 2𝜋/𝑇

• Now we will try to change x-axis from t to 𝜔𝑡.

• Therefore, when 𝑡 = 0; 𝜔𝑡 = 0.
𝑇 2𝜋 𝑇
• Now when 𝑡 = ; 𝜔𝑡 = ∗ =𝜋
2 𝑇 2

2𝜋
• Now when 𝑡 = 𝑇; 𝜔𝑡 = ∗ 𝑇 = 2𝜋
𝑇

11
Contd.
• Therefore, more general term for a sinusoid function can be 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 ± ϕ).

• Here, 𝜔𝑡 ± ϕ is called the argument of the function and ϕ is called the phase shift (which may be leading or
lagging).

• For example, let there be three signals: 𝑣1 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡, 𝑣2 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 + ϕ , 𝑣3 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 − ϕ .

• Therefore, when 𝜔𝑡 = −ϕ; 𝑣2 𝑡 = 0 and when 𝜔𝑡 = +ϕ; 𝑣3 𝑡 = 0.

• Therefore, the phase difference between 𝑣2 𝑡 and 𝑣3 𝑡 is 2ϕ. It can be said that 𝑣2 𝑡 is leading 𝑣3 𝑡 by
2ϕ or 𝑣3 𝑡 is lagging 𝑣2 𝑡 by 2ϕ.
12
 Contd.
• A provides the peak value of the sinusoid, or the maximum value of the function. (A also provides the
minimum value of the function, which is simply the negative value of A.)

• ω governs the rate of oscillation of the signal—smaller values of ω mean that the signal is oscillating
more slowly, or that there is a longer time between peaks in the sinusoid.

• θ affects the translation of the sinusoid in time.

• A period is defined as the amount of time (expressed

in seconds) required to complete one full cycle.

• The duration of a period represented by T, may be

different for each signal but it is constant for any
given periodic signal.

13
 Conditions required to compare two sinusoids
• There are three conditions which should be satisfied to compare two sinusoids:

1. They should have the same frequency.

2. They should have the same form of expressions i.e. either sine or cosine.

3. They should have the same sign in their amplitudes (if one is + and one is -, then there is a shift of
180° ).

14
 Question
• Calculate the amplitude, phase, angular freq., period and freq. of the signal 𝒗(𝒕) =
𝟓𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝟒𝝅𝒕 − 𝟔𝟎°).

• We will compare this given signal with the standard form i.e. 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 − ϕ)

• Therefore, 𝑉𝑚 = 5.

• Then, 𝜔 = 4𝜋 radians/sec.

• Phase =ϕ = 60°

2𝜋 2𝜋 1
• Time period = T = = 4𝜋 = 2 = 0.5 𝑠𝑒𝑐.
𝜔

1
• Freq. = 𝑓 = 𝑇 = 2𝐻𝑧.

15
 Question
• A spring oscillates above a table as per the diagram and graph shown. Determine for
the graph:
(a) Amplitude (b) Period (c) Phase shift for sine and cosine wave (d) Vertical
Translation (e) Equation

(a) 25 cm
c. 0.8 sec towards right (cos wave) or 0.4 sec towards right (sine wave)
(b) 1.6 sec
d. 50 cm up
2𝜋
e. ℎ = 25 cos 1.6
𝑡 − 0.8 + 50 16
 Question
• Calculate the phase angle between 𝑽𝟏 = −𝟏𝟎𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒕 + 𝟓𝟎°) and 𝑽𝟐 = 𝟏𝟐𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕 −
𝟏𝟎°).

• First we will compare all three conditions:

(a) freq. is same
(b) expression is different
(c) amplitude sign is different.

• Now we have to convert sine to cos or vice versa with same sign in amplitude.

• Therefore, we will perform a right shift of 90° e.g. 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 which means 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜃 − 90° = −𝑉𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

• Now compare this signal with 𝑽𝟏 ; 𝑉𝑚 = 10, 𝜃 = 𝜔𝑡 + 50°.

• Therefore, we can say that 𝟏𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕 − 𝟒𝟎° = 𝑽𝟏 .

• Now compare 𝑽𝟏 and 𝑽𝟐 .

17
Signals
• A signal is a set of information or data.

• Signals are represented mathematically as a function of one or more independent variable.

• Examples include a telephone or a television signal, temperature, pressure, distance.

• Some other examples of our daily life can be music, speech, video signals etc.

• In all these examples, the signals are functions of the independent variable time.

• In electrical signal, the signal can be voltage or current, as these are a function of time as an
independent variable.

18
Systems
• Signals may be processed further by systems, which may modify them or extract additional
information from them.

• For example, an antiaircraft gun operator may want to know the future location of a hostile moving
target that is being tracked by his radar. Knowing the radar signal, he knows the past location and
velocity of the target.

• By properly processing the radar signal (the input), he can approximately estimate the future
location of the target. Thus, a system is an entity that processes a set of signals (inputs) to yield
another set of signals (outputs).

• A system may be made up of physical components, as in electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic

systems (hardware realization), or it may be an algorithm that computes an output from an input
signal (software realization).

19
Size of a Signal
• The size of any entity is a number that indicates the largeness or strength of that entity.

• Generally speaking, the signal amplitude varies with time.

• How can a signal that exists over a certain time interval with varying amplitude be measured by
one number that will indicate the signal size or signal strength?

• Such a measure must consider not only the signal amplitude, but also its duration.

• For instance, if we are to devise a single number V as a measure of the size of a human being, we
must consider not only his or her width, but also the height.

20
Signal Energy
• Consider the area under a signal x(t) as a possible measure of its size, because it takes account not
only of the amplitude but also of the duration.

• However, this will be a defective measure because even for a large signal x(t), its positive and
negative areas could cancel each other, indicating a signal of small size.

• This difficulty can be corrected by defining the signal size as the area under 𝑥 2 (𝑡), which is always
positive. We call this measure the signal energy 𝐸𝑥 , defined (for a real signal) as

∞
𝐸𝑥 = 𝑥 2 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞

• This definition can be generalized to a complex valued signal x(t) as

∞
𝐸𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
−∞
21
Signal Power
• The signal energy must be finite for it to be a meaningful measure of the signal size.

• A necessary condition for the energy to be finite is that the signal amplitude → 0 as |t| → ∞.
Otherwise the integral will not converge.

• When the amplitude of x(t) does not → 0 as |t| → ∞, the signal energy is infinite. A more
meaningful measure of the signal size in such a case would be the time average of the energy, if it
exists. This measure is called the power of the signal.

• For a signal x(t), we define its power 𝑃𝑥 as

𝑇/2
1
𝑃𝑥 = lim 𝑥 2 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇→ ∞ 𝑇 −𝑇/2

• We can generalize this definition for a complex signal x(t)

as 𝑇/2
1 2 𝑑𝑡
𝑃𝑥 = lim 𝑥 𝑡
𝑇→ ∞ 𝑇 −𝑇/2
22
Contd.
• The signal power 𝑃𝑥 is the time average (mean) of the signal amplitude squared, that is, the mean-
squared value of x(t).

• Indeed, the square root of 𝑃𝑥 is the familiar rms (root-mean-square) value of x(t).

• Generally, the mean of an entity averaged over a large time interval approaching infinity exists if
the entity either is periodic or has a statistical regularity.

• If such a condition is not satisfied, the average may not exist. For instance, a ramp signal x(t) = t
increases indefinitely as |t| → ∞, and neither the energy nor the power exists for this signal.

• However, the unit step function, which is not periodic nor has statistical regularity, does have a
finite power.

23
Contd.
• When x(t) is periodic, 𝑥 𝑡 2 is also periodic. Hence, the power of x(t) can be computed from by
averaging 𝑥 𝑡 2 over one period.

• A periodic signal can be a power signal or neither energy nor power signal (NENP).

• But a periodic signal cannot be an energy signal because integration of a periodic signal from
− ∞ 𝑡𝑜 + ∞, we will get infinite area.

• The power of an energy signal is 0 while energy of a power signal is ∞.

24
 Singularity Functions
• These singularity functions serve as the basic building blocks for the construction of more complex signals.

• These signals may be used to model a large number of physical signals which occur in nature.

• These singularity signals are:

Unit Step Unit Impulse Ramp

Function Function Function

25
 Unit Step Function
• The function only exits for positive side and zero for negative side.

• The function is discontinuous at t = 0.

• The unit step function, u(t), is defined as

𝑢 𝑡 = 0 𝑡<0
1 t ≥0

• Sometimes, if we want a signal to start at t = 0 so that it may have a value of 0 for t < 0, then we will
multiply the given signal with unit-step function.

• The function is also called as Heaviside Step function, named after Oliver Heaviside. 26
 Shifted Unit Step Function
• In many circuits, waveforms are applied at specified intervals other than t =0. Such a function may be
described using the shifted/delayed unit step function.

• A function which has value 0 up to the time t = a and thereafter has value 1, is written:

• For example, f(t) = u(t - 3) i.e. the equation means f(t) has value
of 0 when t < 3 and 1 when t > 3.

27
 Unit Impulse Function
• An unit-impulse function is denoted as 𝛿(𝑡) and may be expressed as 𝛿 𝑡 = 0 when 𝑡 ≠ 0.

∞
• It can also be expressed as:
𝛿 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 1
−∞
• The unit-impulse function is also called as Dirac-Delta function.

• In Fig., the width of the pulse is zero, which means pulse exists
only at t = 0.

• The height of the pulse goes to infinity, also the area under the pulse curve is always unity.

• The upward pointing arrow indicates the actual value of infinity.

• The total area under the pulse is called as the strength of the impulse. 28
 Shifted Unit Impulse Function
• An unit-impulse function centered at 𝑡 = 𝑡0 . It is denoted by 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑡0 .

• An unit-impulse function centered at 𝑡 = 𝑡0 and having an area = A.

• This function is used to represent point mass, point source etc.

29
 Unit Ramp Function
• A ramp function or ramp signal is a type of standard signal which starts at 𝑡 = 0 and increases linearly
with time.

• The unit ramp function has unit slope and represented by r(t).

30
 Classification of Signals
Continuous Time Discrete Time Non-Periodic
Periodic Signal
Signal Signal Signal

Real Signal Complex Signal Even Signal Odd Signal

Deterministic
Random Signal Energy Signal Power Signal
Signal

Analog Signal Digital Signal

31
 Continuous and Discrete Time Signal

• If t is a continuous variable, then a signal x(t) is a continuous time signal.

• If t is a discrete variable, then x(t) is a discrete time signal, which is generally denoted by x[n] with n being
an integer.

32
 Deterministic and Non-Deterministic Signal
• The signal which can be specified in time, or can be characterized mathematically, or the pattern of the
signal is regular, or the nature or amplitude of the signal can be predicted at any time is called as
Deterministic signal e.g. x(t) = bt

• A non-deterministic or random signal is the one whose occurrence is always random in nature. The pattern
of such signal is irregular e.g. thermal noise generated in electrical circuit.

33
 Periodic and Aperiodic Signal
• A periodic signal has a definite pattern and repeats over and over with a repetition period of T.

• If a signal does not repeat then it is called as Aperiodic signal. Sometimes, aperiodic signal have a period =
∞

34
 Even and Odd Signal
• The signal which is identical about the origin is called a even signal. This signal exhibits symmetry in the
time domain e.g. 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥 −𝑡 .

• The signal which does not exhibit symmetry or is anti-symmetry is called an odd signal. These signals are
not identical about its origin.

35
 Energy and Power Signal
• The signal which has finite energy and zero average power is called an Energy Signal. Hence, x(t) is an
energy signal if 0 < 𝐸 < ∞ and P = 0.

• The signal which has infinite energy and finite average power is called a Power Signal. Hence, x(t) is a
power signal if 0 < 𝑃 < ∞ and E = ∞.

• However, if the signal does not satisfy any of the above two conditions, then it is neither an energy signal
nor a power signal.

36
Fourier Series (FS)
• Sine and cosine waves are the basic building functions for any periodic signal, which means that any
periodic signal basically consists of sine waves having different amplitudes of different frequencies and
having different relative phase shifts.

• Fourier series represents a periodic waveform in the form of sum of infinite number of sine and cosine
terms.

• It is the representation of the signal in time domain series.

Trigonometric or
Polar FS Exponential FS
Quadrature FS

37
Trigonometric Fourier Series
• A periodic function x(t) may be expressed in the form of trigonometric Fourier Series comprising the
following sine and cosine terms:

𝑥 𝑡
= 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑤𝑜 𝑡 + 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑤0 𝑡
+ ⋯ … … … . + 𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝑤0 𝑡 + ⋯ + 𝑏1 sin 𝑤0 𝑡 + 𝑏2 sin 2𝑤0 𝑡 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝑤0 𝑡

Or this can be written as ∞

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑎0 + (𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝑤0 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝑤0 𝑡)

𝑛=1
Where 𝑡0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑡0 + 𝑇

2𝜋
• Here, 𝑇0 = ; 𝑎0 , 𝑎𝑛 and 𝑏𝑛 are known as Fourier coefficients.
𝑤0

• 𝑤0 is called the fundamental frequency and 2𝑤0 , 3𝑤0 ,… are called the harmonics of 𝑤0 .

• 𝑎1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑤𝑜 𝑡 and 𝑏1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑜 𝑡 are called the fundamental components. 38

Contd.
• The value of 𝑎0 can be given as:
1 𝑡+𝑇0
𝑎0 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇0 𝑡

• It is the average value of 𝑥 𝑡 and called as the dc component of 𝑥 𝑡 .

𝑡+𝑇0
2
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑡 . cos(𝑛𝑤0 𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑇0
𝑡

𝑡+𝑇0
2
𝑏𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑡 . sin(𝑛𝑤0 𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑇0
𝑡

39
Polar Fourier Series
• The polar FS is derived from trigonometric FS by combining the sine and cosine terms of same
frequency. It is represented as follows:

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐶0 + 𝐶𝑛 cos(𝑛𝑤0 𝑡 + ϕ𝑛 )
𝑛=1

𝑏
Where Cn = [𝑎𝑛2 + 𝑏𝑛2 ]1/2 and ϕ𝑛 = − tan−1 [ 𝑛 ]
𝑎𝑛

and C0 = a0 = average value of 𝑥 𝑡

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐶0 + 𝐶1 cos(𝑤𝑜 𝑡 + ϕ1 ) + 𝐶2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑤0 𝑡 + ϕ2 + ⋯

40
 Exponential Fourier Series
• The sine and cosine terms can also be expressed in exponential terms:

𝑒 𝑗𝜃 − 𝑒 −𝑗𝜃 𝑒 𝑗𝜃 + 𝑒 −𝑗𝜃
sin 𝜃 = cos 𝜃 =
2 2
∞

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐶𝑛 𝑒 𝑗2𝜋𝑛𝑡/𝑇0
𝑛=−∞
1 𝑡+𝑇0
Where Cn = 𝑥 𝑡 . 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑛𝑡/𝑇0 𝑑𝑡
𝑇0 𝑡

• Here, n is extending from -∞ to ∞ instead of 0 to ∞. Due to this, frequencies in frequency spectrum will
extend from -∞ to ∞.

• If we express a signal using exponential Fourier Series, we obtain a double sided frequency spectrum.

• However, negative freq. signals does not exist physically. They are just used as a mathematical concept
41
and for convenience.
Dirichlet’s conditions in Fourier Series
• FS is used for analysis of Periodic signal while Fourier Transform is used for aperiodic signal.

• The continuous-time Fourier series exists only when the function x(t) satisfy the following three
conditions called as Dirichlet’s conditions.
a) 𝑥(𝑡) must possess only a finite number of discontinuities in the period T
b) 𝑥(𝑡) must have a finite number of positive and negative maxima in the period T.
c) 𝑥(𝑡) should be absolutely integrable over the range of time period.

42
Symmetry Conditions
• If the function x(t) is even, then x(-t) = x(t), e.g. cos t, 𝑡 2

• The graph of even function is symmetrical w.r.t. y axis and in FS representation of even function, only
cosine terms are present (dc term is optional).

• Mathematically, 𝑎 𝑎

𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 2 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−𝑎 0
43
Contd.
• If the function x(t) is odd, then x(-t) = -x(t), e.g. sin t, 𝑡 3

• The graph of an odd function is symmetrical about the

origin and in FS representation of odd function, only
sine terms are present (dc term is optional).

• Mathematically, 𝑎

𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 0
−𝑎
• The sum or product of two or more even functions is an
even function.

• The sum of two or more odd functions is an odd function

and product of two odd functions is an even function.

44
Properties of Continuous Time FS

Time Conjuga
tion Linearity
Different
iation

Time-
Multipl shifting
ication

Frequency
Time shifting
Scaling
Symmetry

45
Linearity
• Let there are two signals 𝑥1 (𝑡) and 𝑥2 (𝑡). Then, the complex exponentials of these signals are 𝐶1𝑛 and 𝐶2𝑛 .

• Both the signals are having fundamental time period 𝑇0 . Since performing scaling function and adding them
results in
𝛼. 𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝛽. 𝑥2 𝑡 = 𝑥(𝑡).
• Therefore, complex exponential of 𝑥(𝑡) ↔ 𝐶𝑛
1 𝑇0 1 𝑇0
• Since we know, 𝐶𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑡 . 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜔0𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = [𝛼. 𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝛽. 𝑥2 𝑡 ]. 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜔0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇0 0 𝑇0 0
1 𝑇0 1 𝑇0
Cn = [𝛼 ∗ 𝑥1 𝑡 . 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜔0𝑡 𝑑𝑡]+[𝛽 ∗ 𝑥2 𝑡 . 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜔0𝑡 𝑑𝑡]
𝑇0 0 𝑇0 0

𝐶1𝑛 𝐶2𝑛
• Therefore, 𝑪𝒏 = 𝜶𝐂𝟏𝐧 + 𝜷𝑪𝟐𝒏

• Therefore, 𝜶𝒙𝟏 (𝒕) + 𝜷𝒙𝟐 (𝒕) ↔ 𝜶𝐂𝟏𝐧 + 𝜷𝑪𝟐𝒏

46
Conjugation
• Let there is a signal x(𝑡) with a fundamental time period of 𝑇0 . Then, the complex exponential Fourier
expansion of that signal is 𝐶𝑛 .
1 𝑇0
• Since we know, 𝐶𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑡 . 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜔0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇0 0

• Taking conjugate of both the sides,

𝑇0
1
𝐶𝑛∗ = 𝑥 ∗ 𝑡 . 𝑒 +𝑗𝑛𝜔0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇0
0

• Since this is not a formula of complex exponential Fourier coefficient. Therefore, replacing n by –n.
𝑇0
∗
1
𝐶−𝑛 = 𝑥 ∗ 𝑡 . 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜔0𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇0
0
∗ ∗
𝑥 𝑡 ↔ 𝐶−𝑛
• Therefore, if we take complex conjugate of signal x 𝑡 , then its complex exponential Fourier expansion will
∗
become 𝐶−𝑛

47
Time Reversal
• Let there is a signal with fundamental time period 𝑇0 , 𝑥(𝑡) ↔ 𝐶𝑛
1 𝑇0
• Since we know, 𝐶𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑡 . 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜔0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇0 0

• We will perform the reversal operation by subjecting 𝑥(𝑡) to a system performing reversal and output will be
𝑥(−𝑡).
• The operation time reversal is only for 𝑥(𝑡). The t in exponential part will not change (because time reversal
operation will not expand or compress the signal waveform, it will just flip the waveform w.r.t. y axis.

𝑇0 Let −𝑡 = 𝜏, then −𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝜏

1 If 𝑡 = 0, then 𝜏 = 0
𝐶𝑛′ = 𝑥 −𝑡 . 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜔0𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇0 If 𝑡 = 𝑇0 , then 𝜏 = −𝑇0
0
−𝑇0 0
1 1 ′
𝐶𝑛′ = 𝑥 𝜏 . 𝑒 +𝑗𝑛𝜔0𝜏 (−𝑑𝜏) 𝐶𝑛′ = 𝑥 𝜏 . 𝑒 −𝑗(−𝑛)𝜔0𝜏 𝑑𝜏 𝐶−𝑛
𝑇0 𝑇0
0 −𝑇0

Therefore, whenever 𝒙(𝒕) will go time reversal 𝒙 −𝒕 , then its complex exponential Fourier coefficient will also
48
undergo time reversal operation i.e. 𝐂−𝐧
Time Scaling
• Let there is a signal with fundamental time period 𝑇0 , 𝑥(𝑡) ↔ 𝐶𝑛
1 𝑇0
• Since we know, 𝐶𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑡 . 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜔0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇0 0

• We will perform the time scaling operation by subjecting 𝑥(𝑡) to a system performing scaling and output will
be 𝑥 𝛼𝑡 ; Al𝑠𝑜 α > 1 which means signal is compressing.
• Hence, time period will reduce and freq. will increase. Therefore new time period is 𝑇0′ = 𝑇0 /𝛼
2𝜋 2𝜋𝛼
• Angular Freq. 𝜔′0 = = = 𝜔0 𝛼.
𝑇0′ 𝑇0
𝑇0′ Let α𝑡 = 𝜏, then α 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝜏 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝜏/α
1 If 𝑡 = 0, then 𝜏 = 0
𝐶𝑛′ = 𝑥 𝛼𝑡 . 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜔′0𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇′0 If 𝑡 = 𝑇0′ = 𝑇0/α , then 𝜏 = 𝑇0
0

𝑇0 𝑇0
α 1
𝐶𝑛′ = 𝑥 𝜏 . 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜔0α𝜏/α 𝑑𝜏/α 𝐶𝑛′ = 𝑥 𝜏 . 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜔0𝜏 𝑑𝜏 𝐶𝑛
𝑇0 𝑇0
0 0

Therefore, whenever 𝒙(𝒕) will go time scaling 𝒙 𝜶𝒕 , then its complex exponential Fourier coefficient will not
49
undergo any change i.e. 𝐂𝐧 but 𝑻𝟎 will change.
Time Shifting
• Let there is a signal with fundamental time period 𝑇0 , 𝑥(𝑡) ↔ 𝐶𝑛
1 𝑇0
• Since we know, 𝐶𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑡 . 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜔0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇0 0

• We will perform the time shifting operation by subjecting 𝑥(𝑡) to a system performing time shifting and
output will be 𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑡0 which means right shifting is performed. Also, time period and angular freq. will not
change.
𝑇0 Let 𝑡 − 𝑡0 = 𝜏, then 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝜏
1
𝐶𝑛′ = 𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑡0 . 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜔0𝑡 𝑑𝑡 If 𝑡 = 0, then 𝜏 = −𝑡0
𝑇0 If 𝑡 = 𝑇0 , then 𝜏 = 𝑇0 − 𝑡0
0 𝑇0 −𝑡0
𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜔0 𝑡0

𝑇0 −𝑡0 𝐶𝑛′ = 𝑥 𝜏 . 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜔0𝜏 . 𝑑𝜏

𝑇0
1 𝑇0 −𝑡0 −𝑡0
𝐶𝑛′ = 𝑥 𝜏 . 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜔0(𝜏+𝑡0) 𝑑𝜏 1
𝑇0 𝐶𝑛′ = 𝑥 𝜏 . 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜔0𝜏 . 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜔0𝑡0 𝑑𝜏
−𝑡0 𝑇0
−𝑡0

𝐶𝑛′ = 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜔0 𝑡0 . 𝐶𝑛

Therefore, whenever 𝒙(𝒕) will go time shifting 𝒙 𝒕 ± 𝒕𝟎 , then 𝐂𝐧′ = 𝒆±𝒋𝒏𝝎𝟎 𝒕𝟎 . 𝑪𝒏

50
Frequency Shifting
• Let there is a signal with fundamental time period 𝑇0 , 𝑥(𝑡) ↔ 𝐶𝑛
1 𝑇0
• Since we know, 𝐶𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑡 . 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜔0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇0 0

• We will perform the frequency shifting by an amount m i.e. 𝐶𝑛−𝑚 and let new time domain signal be 𝑥′(𝑡).

𝑇0 𝑇0
1 1
𝐶𝑛−𝑚 = 𝑥 𝑡 . 𝑒 −𝑗(𝑛−𝑚)𝜔0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐶𝑛−𝑚 = 𝑥 𝑡 . 𝑒 +𝑗𝑚𝜔0𝑡 . 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛𝜔0𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇0 𝑇0
0 0
𝒙′(𝒕)

𝑪𝒏 → 𝑪𝒏−𝒎 = 𝒙′ (𝒕) = 𝒙(𝒕). 𝒆+𝒋𝒎𝝎𝟎 𝒕

51
Question 1
• Obtain the Trigonometric Fourier series for the rectangular pulse train shown here.

• Trigonometric Fourier series is given by:

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑎0 + (𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝑤0 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝑤0 𝑡)

𝑛=1

𝜏 𝜏
• We will consider the time period from − to
2 2

• First estimate 𝑎0 . 𝑇0/2

1
𝜏/2
1
𝜏/2
1
𝑎0 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑎0 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑎0 = 𝐴𝑑𝑡
𝑇0 𝑇0 𝑇0
−𝑇0 /2 −𝜏/2 −𝜏/2

𝐴 𝜏 𝜏 𝑨𝝉
𝑎0 = [ − (− )] 𝒂𝟎 = 52
𝑇0 2 2 𝑻𝟎
Contd.
𝑇0/2 𝜏/2
2 2𝜋𝑛𝑡 2 2𝜋𝑛𝑡
• Now estimate 𝑎𝑛 . 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑡 cos[ ]𝑑𝑡 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑡 cos[ ]𝑑𝑡
𝑇0 𝑇0 𝑇0 𝑇0
−𝑇0 /2 −𝜏/2

𝜏 𝜏/2
2𝐴 1 2𝜋𝑛𝑡 2 2𝐴 2𝜋𝑛𝑡
𝑎𝑛 = ∗ sin 𝑎𝑛 = cos[ ]𝑑𝑡
𝑇0 2𝜋𝑛 𝑇0 −𝜏/2 𝑇0 𝑇0
𝑇0 −𝜏/2

𝐴 𝜋𝑛𝜏 𝜋𝑛𝜏
𝑎𝑛 = sin + sin 𝟐𝑨 𝝅𝒏𝝉
𝑛𝜋 𝑇0 𝑇0 𝒂𝒏 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧
𝒏𝝅 𝑻𝟎
𝑇0/2 𝜏/2
2 2𝜋𝑛𝑡 2𝐴 2𝜋𝑛𝑡
• Now estimate 𝑏𝑛 . 𝑏𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑡 sin[ ]𝑑𝑡 𝑏𝑛 = sin[ ]𝑑𝑡
𝑇0 𝑇0 𝑇0 𝑇0
−𝑇0 /2 −𝜏/2
𝜏
−2𝐴 1 2𝜋𝑛𝑡 2
−𝐴 𝜋𝑛𝜏 𝜋𝑛𝜏 𝑏𝑛 = ∗ cos
𝒃𝒏 = 𝟎 𝑏𝑛 = cos − 𝑐𝑜s 𝑇0 2𝜋𝑛 𝑇0
𝑛𝜋 𝑇0 𝑇0 −𝜏/2
𝑇0
53
Question 2
• Obtain the Exponential Fourier series for the rectangular pulse train shown here.

• Exponential Fourier series is given by:

∞
𝑗2𝜋𝑛𝑡
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐶𝑛 𝑒 𝑇0
𝑛=−∞

𝜏 𝜏
• We will consider the time period from − to
2 2

• Estimate Cn .
𝑡+𝑇0 𝜏/2
𝑗2𝜋𝑛𝑡 1 𝑗2𝜋𝑛𝑡
1 − 𝑇 − 𝑇
Cn = 𝑥 𝑡 .𝑒 0 𝑑𝑡 Cn = 𝐴 ∗𝑒 0 𝑑𝑡
𝑇0 𝑇0
𝑡 −𝜏/2

54
Contd.
𝜏
𝜏/2 𝜏/2 𝑗2𝜋𝑛𝑡 2
1 −
𝑗2𝜋𝑛𝑡 𝐴 −
𝑗2𝜋𝑛𝑡 −𝐴 1 −
Cn = 𝐴∗𝑒 𝑇0 𝑑𝑡 Cn = 𝑒 𝑇0 𝑑𝑡 Cn = ∗ 𝑒 𝑇0 −𝜏
𝑇0 𝑇0 𝑇0 2𝑗𝜋𝑛 2
−𝜏/2 −𝜏/2 𝑇0

𝑗2𝜋𝑛𝜏
−
𝑗2𝜋𝑛𝜏 −𝐴 −𝑗2𝜋𝑛𝜏 𝑗2𝜋𝑛𝜏

𝑨 𝝅𝒏𝝉 𝐴 𝑒 2𝑇0 −𝑒 2𝑇0 Cn = 𝑒 2𝑇0 − 𝑒 2𝑇0

𝑪𝐧 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧( ) Cn = 2𝑗𝜋𝑛
𝝅𝒏 𝑻𝟎 𝜋𝑛 2𝑗

𝑒 𝑗𝜃 − 𝑒 −𝑗𝜃
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 =
2𝑗 𝝉 𝝅𝒏𝝉
𝜏
𝐴∗ 𝜋𝑛𝜏 𝑪𝐧 = 𝑨 ∗ ∗ 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒄( )
Now, multiply and divide RHS by 𝜏/𝑇0
𝑇0 𝑻𝟎 𝑻𝟎
𝐶n = 𝜏 sin( 𝑇 )
𝜋𝑛 ∗ 0
𝑇0

55
 • The function (sin 𝑥)/𝑥 is the sine over argument function and is denoted by
sin 𝑐(𝑥) .

• It is also known as filtering or interpolating function.

sin 𝑐 𝑥 = (sin 𝑥)/𝑥

• sin 𝑐(𝑥) is an even function.

• sin 𝑐 0 = 1 at t=0.

56
Question 3
• Obtain the Trigonometric Fourier series for the pulse train shown here.

• Trigonometric Fourier series is given by:

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑎0 + (𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝑤0 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝑤0 𝑡)

𝑛=1

• First we will estimate the time period, 𝑇0 = 2𝜋 sec

• First estimate 𝑎0 . 𝑇0/2

1
2𝜋
1
𝑎0 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑎0 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇0 2𝜋
−𝑇0 /2 0

• Now first find 𝑥 𝑡

57
• Signal x(t) is a straight line passing through origin.

𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝑦= ∗𝑥
𝑥2 − 𝑥1

• Here, point 2 is (2𝜋, 1) and point 1 is (0,0).

1−0 1
𝑦= ∗𝑥 = 𝑥
2𝜋 − 0 2𝜋
𝒕
• Now, Put y = x(t) and x = t in above equation. 𝒙(𝒕) =
𝟐𝝅
2𝜋 2𝜋 2π
• Now, solve for 𝑎0 1 1 𝑡 1 t2
𝑎0 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑎0 = 𝑑𝑡 𝑎0 = 2
2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋 4𝜋 2 0
0 0

2π
1 4π2
𝟏 𝑎0 = 2 −0
𝒂𝟎 = 4𝜋 2 0
𝟐
58
 𝑇0/2 2𝜋
• Now, solve for 𝑎𝑛 2 2 𝑡
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑡 cos 𝑛𝜔0 𝑡𝑑𝑡 𝑎𝑛 = cos 𝑛𝜔0 𝑡𝑑𝑡
𝑇0 𝑇0 2𝜋
−𝑇0 /2 0

• First estimate 𝜔0 2𝜋 2𝜋
𝜔0 = = =1
𝑇0 2𝜋
t is algebraic function;
cosnt is trigonometric function
2𝜋 2𝜋
• Now replace this value 2 𝑡 1
𝑎𝑛 = cos 𝑛𝑡𝑑𝑡 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑡cos 𝑛𝑡𝑑𝑡
2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋 2
0 0

• Now we will use integration by parts method,

• If we have two functions, 𝑢𝑣 𝑑𝑥; here u is first function and v is second function
𝑑𝑢
𝑢𝑣 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢 𝑣𝑑𝑥 − [ 𝑣𝑑𝑥] 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥

• It is important to choose first function carefully, so that integration will be easy. Follow ILATE

59
 2𝜋
1 𝑑𝑢
𝑎𝑛 = 2 𝑡cos 𝑛𝑡𝑑𝑡 𝑢𝑣 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢 𝑣𝑑𝑥 − [ 𝑣𝑑𝑥] 𝑑𝑥
2𝜋 𝑑𝑥
0

𝑑𝑡 𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑡
𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝑡𝑑𝑡 = 𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝑡𝑑𝑡 − [ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝑡𝑑𝑡] 𝑑𝑡 = − 1∗ 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑛 𝑛

1 𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝑡 2π 𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝑡

𝑎𝑛 = 2 + = − [− 2 ]
2π 𝑛 𝑛2 0 𝑛 𝑛
1 2𝜋𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛2𝜋 0𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛2𝜋 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛0
𝑎𝑛 = − + −
2π2 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛2 𝑛2
• Similarly calculate 𝒃𝒏

𝟏
𝒃𝒏 = −
• Here, first term = 0; second term = 0; third term = 1; fourth term = 1 𝒏𝝅

• Therefore, 𝑎𝑛 will be replaced as 1 1 1

𝑎𝑛 = −
2π2 𝑛2 𝑛2 𝒂𝒏 = 𝟎
60
Fourier Transform
• Till now, we have represented periodic signals extending over the interval (−∞, ∞) using the FS.

• Non-periodic signals are conveniently represented by Fourier Transform in the frequency domain.

• It is used for transformation from the time domain to frequency domain.

• Fourier Transform may be expressed as:

∞
𝑋 𝜔 =𝐹 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞

or
∞
𝑋 𝑓 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞
61
Contd.
• 𝑋 𝑓 or 𝑋 𝜔 are called the Fourier transform of x 𝑡 . These are also called as the frequency domain
representation of time domain function x 𝑡 .

• Therefore, we are converting a time domain signal into its frequency domain representation with the
help of FT.

Inverse Fourier Transform

• If we want to convert a frequency domain signal into corresponding time domain signal, we will
consider taking inverse FT.
∞
1
𝐹 −1 [𝑋(𝜔)] = 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐹 −1 [𝑋(𝜔)] 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑋(𝜔)𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔
2𝜋 −∞

∞
Here, 𝒙 𝒕 and 𝐗 𝝎 are FT pair 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑋(𝑓)𝑒 𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑡 𝑑𝑓
−∞ 62
Contd.
FT
• Symbolically, this may be expressed as 𝑥(𝑡) ↔ 𝑋(𝜔)

• Generally, FT is a complex function of 𝜔 and may be expressed as:

𝑋 𝜔 = 𝑋 𝜔 𝑒 𝑗<𝑋 𝜔 = 𝑋 𝜔 𝑒 𝑗𝜃 𝜔

• Where |𝑋(𝜔)| is called the amplitude spectrum and < 𝑋(𝜔) is called the phase spectrum.

63
Properties of Fourier Transform
• Some of the important
properties of FT are
listed as follows:

64
Parseval's Power Theorem
• The Parseval's power theorem states that the total average power of a periodic signal 𝑥(𝑡) is equal to the
sum of the average powers of the individual Fourier coefficients i.e. 𝐶𝑛

• Thus, average power of 𝑥(𝑡) = (Power of C1) + (Power of C2) + ….

or ∞
2
𝑃= 𝐶𝑛
𝑛=−∞

65
Spectral Density Functions
• The spectral density of a signal defines the distribution of energy and power per unit bandwidth as a
function of frequency.

• The spectral density of energy signals is called as Energy spectral density (ESD) while that of the power
signal is called as Power spectral density (PSD).

Energy Spectral Density (ESD)

• The distribution of energy of a signal in the frequency domain is called the energy spectral density
(ESD) or energy density (ED) or energy density spectrum.

• The squared amplitude spectrum |X(f) |2 is called as the ESD.

𝐸𝑆𝐷 = ψ(𝑓) = |𝑋 𝑓 |2

66
Power Spectral Density (PSD)
• Let 𝑥 𝑡 be a real valued power signal. Then, the average normalized power of this signal may be
described as under:
1 𝑇/2 2
𝑃 = lim 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇→∞ 𝑇 −𝑇/2

• If 𝑥 𝑡 is periodic with a period T0 , Then according to Parseval’s power theorem, the average signal
power is given by
∞

𝑃= 𝐶𝑛 2

𝑛=−∞

• For a periodic signal, 𝐶𝑛 is expressed as under:

1
𝐶𝑛 = 𝑋(𝑛𝑓0 )
𝑇0

67
Contd.
• Substituting the value of 𝐶𝑛 in power equation
∞
1 2
𝑃= 2 𝑋 𝑛𝑓0
𝑇0
𝑛=−∞
• Therefore,
∞
1 2
𝑃= 2 𝑋 𝑛𝑓0
𝑇0
𝑛=−∞

• But the FT of a periodic signal is not continuous, it is discrete and present only at frequencies
+ 𝑓0 , +2𝑓0 …
∞
1
𝑆(𝑓) = 2 𝑋 𝑛𝑓0 2 𝛿(𝑓 − 𝑛𝑓0 )
𝑇0
𝑛=−∞

• This relation shows that PSD is a discrete function of frequency indicated by 𝛿 𝑓 − 𝑛𝑓0 .

• The average power of a periodic signal is given by the area under the power spectral density function.
68
Frequency domain
1
• Mathematically, 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞 =
𝑇0

• Or we can also say that, Frequency is how fast the signal is changing.

Freq. = 0 Freq. = low Freq. = high

69
Freq. distribution of slow song Freq. distribution of fast song

70
 Relation between Time & Frequency domain
Case 1 Suppose if I say, “Hi, this is Communication subject”

Case 2 If I will increase the speed 2 times for speaking same line

Case 3 If I will slow the speed 2 times

2

Therefore, when we compress the signal in time domain, it

8 get expanded in freq. domain and vice versa. 71
Why we need to learn signal processing in freq.
domain
Here, we have three signals and
three coefficients.

If we will give equal weights to

all coefficients then all signal
will contribute equally.

Or if we want to get rid of any of

the signal then we can set that
coefficient to 0.

If we want to give any signal

more priority then we should
give more weight to that coeff.

Here, in all cases we are

processing signal in time
domain. 72
Next Scenario
Suppose while listening the song,
the baby starts crying. Let us
denote that signal with 𝑥𝑛 𝑡
contributing with first
microphone at the same time.

Here, 𝑥1 𝑡 𝑥2 𝑡 𝑥3 𝑡 are the

desired signal but 𝑥𝑛 𝑡 is noise
signal.

If we set 𝑎1 as 0 then 𝑥1 𝑡 also

become 0 and signal will be lost.

Therefore, we cannot separate

𝑥𝑛 𝑡 in time domain.

Hence, we need freq. domain to

separate 𝑥𝑛 𝑡 from 𝑥1 𝑡 .

73
Freq. domain representation of the signal

Signal

Filter
0 0

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B3u57yF2JSc Desired Signal 74

 17/3/2022
Tutorial
1. Find the Fourier Transform of the decaying exponential pulse shown here.

The exponential pulse shown here can be represented as:

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 for t > 0

=0 for t < 0

∞
The FT is represented as:
𝐹[𝑥 𝑡 ] = 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞

∞ ∞
𝐹[𝑥 𝑡 ] = 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐹[𝑥 𝑡 ] = 𝑒 −(𝛼+𝑗2𝜋𝑓)𝑡 𝑑𝑡 1 𝛼+𝑗2𝜋𝑓 𝑡 ∞
0 0 =− 𝑒−
𝛼 + 𝑗2𝜋𝑓 0

𝟏 1 1
𝑭[𝒙(𝒕)] = = − 𝛼+𝑗2𝜋𝑓 [0 − 1] = − 𝛼+𝑗2𝜋𝑓 [𝑒 −∞ −𝑒 0 ]
𝜶 + 𝒋𝟐𝝅𝒇 75
 17/3/2022
Tutorial
2. Find the Fourier Transform of the decaying exponential pulse shown here.

The exponential pulse shown here can be represented as:

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝛼𝑡 for t < 0
=0 for t > 0

∞
The FT is represented as:
𝐹[𝑥 𝑡 ] = 𝑒 𝛼𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞

0 0
𝐹[𝑥 𝑡 ] = 𝑒 𝛼𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐹[𝑥 𝑡 ] = 𝑒 (𝛼−𝑗2𝜋𝑓)𝑡 𝑑𝑡 1 𝛼−𝑗2𝜋𝑓 𝑡 0
−∞
= 𝑒
−∞ 𝛼 − 𝑗2𝜋𝑓 −∞

𝟏 1 1
𝑭[𝒙(𝒕)] = = 𝛼−𝑗2𝜋𝑓 [1 −0] = 𝛼−𝑗2𝜋𝑓 [𝑒 0 −𝑒 −∞]
𝜶 − 𝒋𝟐𝝅𝒇 76
 17/3/2022
Tutorial
2. Find the Fourier Transform of the decaying exponential pulse shown here.

The signal shown here can be represented as:

= −𝑒 𝛼𝑡 for t < 0
𝑥 𝑡 = |1| for t = 0
= 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 for t > 0
The FT is represented as:
0 0 ∞
𝐹[𝑥 𝑡 ] = −𝑒 𝛼𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + 1 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞ 0 0
1 𝛼−𝑗2𝜋𝑓 𝑡 0
1 𝛼+𝑗2𝜋𝑓 𝑡 ∞
=− 𝑒 + 𝑒−
0 ∞ 𝛼 − 𝑗2𝜋𝑓 ∞ −(𝛼 + 𝑗2𝜋𝑓) 0
𝐹[𝑥 𝑡 ] = −𝑒 (𝛼−𝑗2𝜋𝑓)𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑒 −(𝛼+𝑗2𝜋𝑓)𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞ 0

−𝒋𝟒𝝅𝒇 1 1 1 1
𝑿(𝒇) = − 𝟐 =− + =− +
𝜶 + 𝟒𝝅𝟐 𝒇𝟐 𝛼 − 𝑗2𝜋𝑓 𝛼 + 𝑗2𝜋𝑓 𝛼 − 𝑗2𝜋𝑓 𝛼 + 𝑗2𝜋𝑓
3. Evaluate the energy of a signal shown here.

The signal is given by:

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 for t > 0
=0 for t < 0

The normalized energy of a signal is given by:

∞
2
𝐸= 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞

∞ 1 −2𝛼𝑡
−2𝛼𝑡 ∞
𝐸= 𝑒 𝑑𝑡 𝐸=− 𝑒 0
0 2𝛼

𝟏
𝑬=
𝟐𝜶
78
3. Evaluate the energy of a signal shown here.

The signal is given by:

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝛼𝑡 for t < 0
=0 for t > 0

The normalized energy of a signal is given by:

∞
2
𝐸= 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞

0 1 2𝛼𝑡
2𝛼𝑡 𝐸= 𝑒 0
𝐸= 𝑒 𝑑𝑡 ∞
−∞
2𝛼

𝟏
𝑬=
𝟐𝜶
79
3. Evaluate the energy of a signal shown here.

1
We know, the energy of signal for t > 0 is .
2𝛼

1
We also know that the energy of a signal for t < 0 is .
2𝛼

Since, the given signal is combination of two signals,

Therefore total energy of the given signal will be

𝐸 = 𝐸𝑙 + 𝐸𝑟

1 1
𝐸= +
2𝛼 2𝛼

𝟏
𝑬=
𝜶

80
Filtering
• A filter is a device that suppresses unwanted components or features from a signal.

• This usually means removing some frequencies to suppress interfering signals and to reduce
background noise.

• The most commonly used filters are low-pass, high-pass, band-pass and band-stop.

• Characteristics that describe filter are its type, cutoff frequency, etc.

• Cutoff frequency - the frequency beyond which the filter will not pass a signal.

81
Types of Filters
1
1

0 0

-5 5 -10 10

Low pass Filter High pass Filter

1 1

-10 -5 5 10 -10 -5 5 10

Band pass Filter Band stop Filter 82

System Properties
• Here, we will characterize systems based on different system properties.

Static and Causal and Non- x(t) y(t)

System
Dynamic System causal System
• The output y(t) depends upon the
Time-Invariant input x(t) and the property/type of
Linear and Non- the system.
and Time-Variant
linear System
System • 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥(𝑡)
O/P depends upon
present value of I/P

• 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥(𝑡 − 1) O/P depends upon

Invertible and Stable and the past value of I/P
Non-Invertible Unstable System • 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥(𝑡 + 1) O/P depends upon
System the future value of
I/P
 Static System Dynamic System

• System in which the output depends • System in which the output of the
only on the present values of input. system depends upon the past or future
values of input at any instant of time.
• For example, 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 or 𝑦 𝑡 =
2𝑥 𝑡 • For example, 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥(𝑡 + 2)

• 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑥 𝑡 − 1 + 𝑥(𝑡 + 1)

• Solve for 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑒 −(𝑡+1) 𝑥 𝑡

84
 Causal System Non-Causal System
• System in which the output of the
• System in which the output is system depends upon the future values
independent of future values of input. of input at any instant of time.

• The system may depend upon present • It may depend upon past and present
and past input. value but it should also depend upon the
future values.
• All real life systems or practical
systems are causal systems. • For example, 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥(𝑡 + 2)

• For example, 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥(𝑡) (depends on • 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑥 𝑡 − 1 + 𝑥(𝑡 + 1)

present value)

• 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑥(𝑡 − 1) (depends upon

Anti-Causal System
the present and past value) The system in which the output is only dependent on
future values of input.
All anti-casual systems are non-casual systems but vice
versa is not true.
85
Time-Invariant and Time-variant system
𝑥 𝑡 𝑦 𝑡 𝑦 𝑡 − 𝑡0
System Delay by 𝑡0

= 𝑦(𝑡 − 𝑡0 )
𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑡0 𝑦′ 𝑡
Delay by 𝑡0 System ≠ 𝑦(𝑡 − 𝑡0 )

• A Time-Invariant system is a system in which any delay provided in the input must be reflected in
the output.
• For example, 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 2𝑡 ; which means 𝑥 𝑡 is the input and output is 𝑥 2𝑡 which is equal to 𝑦 𝑡 .
We need to find whether the system is time-invariant or time-variant.
• Step 1: provide delay to output i.e. 𝑦 𝑡 − 𝑡0 = 𝑥 2 𝑡 − 𝑡0 = 𝑥(2𝑡 − 2𝑡0 )
• Step 2: provide delay to input i.e. 𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑡0 and provide this to system which perform time scaling i.e.
𝑥 2𝑡 − 𝑡0 system performs time scaling only on t and 𝑡0 is constant.
• Compare output from step 1 and 2. Both are different and hence system is time variant system. 86
 Linear and Non-Linear system
• The system which follows the principle of superposition is known as linear system.

• The system which do not follow the principle of superposition is known as non-linear system.

• Law of Superposition includes two laws i.e. Law of Additivity and law of Homogeneity.

Law of Additivity 𝑥1 𝑡 𝑦1 𝑡
System
𝑦1 𝑡 + 𝑦2 (𝑡)
+
𝑥2 𝑡 𝑦2 𝑡
System

𝑦′ 𝑡 = 𝑦1 𝑡 + 𝑦2 (𝑡)

𝑥1 𝑡
+ System ≠ 𝑦1 𝑡 + 𝑦2 (𝑡)
87
Law of Homogeneity

𝑥 𝑡 𝑦 𝑡 𝑘𝑦 𝑡
System k
= 𝑘𝑦 𝑡
𝑘𝑥 𝑡 𝑦′ 𝑡
k System ≠ 𝑘𝑦 𝑡

88
 Invertible and Non-Invertible System
• Before studying invertible and non-invertible systems, we will see one to one mapping and many to one
mapping.

1 a 1
2 b 2 a
3 b 3 b

One to one mapping many to one mapping

• For an invertible system, there should be one to one mapping between input and output at each and
every instant of time.

• For a non-invertible system, there should be many to one mapping between input and output.

• E.g. 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 2 (𝑡) and 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 + 2 89

 Stable and Unstable System
• Before studying stable and non-stable systems, we must know Bounded I/P Bounded O/P (BIBO)
criteria.

• For a stable system, o/p should be bounded for bounded i/p at each and every instant of time.

• Bounded means from −∞ to ∞, the amplitude of the signal must be finite.

• For a unstable system, the o/p of the system is unbounded when you provide a bounded i/p.

• Example of Stable system, a dc value; sin t or cos t (amplitude ranges from -1 to +1); unit step function.

• Example of Unstable system, 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑥(𝑡); Let the i/p be u(t) then 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑢 𝑡 = 𝑟(𝑡) ramp function,
which is unbounded o/p when i/p is bounded.

90
END OF UNIT 1…THANK YOU!!

91