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Chapter 4: Plastic analysis of reinforced concrete beams and frames

4.1.Introduction
Up to now we have concentrated on the elastic analysis and design of structures. This method of
design, limits the structural usefulness of the material up to a certain allowable stress which is
well below the elastic limit. The stresses due to working loads do not exceed the specified
allowable stresses which are obtained by applying an adequate factor of safety to the yield stress
of materials. The elastic design does not take into account the strength of the material beyond the
elastic stress. Therefore, the structure designed according to elastic design method will be
heavier (i.e. safe but uneconomical) than that designed by plastic design methods.

In the method of plastic design of a structure, the ultimate load rather than the yield stress is
regarded as the design criterion. The strength of materials beyond the yield stress is fully utilized
in this method. This method also provides striking economy as regards the weight of material
since the sections designed by this method are smaller in size than those designed by the method
of elastic design.

Plastic design method has its main application in the analysis and design of statically
indeterminate framed concrete structures and steel structures. An indeterminate structure may
sustain loads greater than the load that first causes a yield to occur at any point in the structure.
In fact, a structure will stand as long as it is able to find redundancies to yield. It is only when a
structure has exhausted all of its redundancies will extra load causes it to fail. Plastic analysis is
the method through which the actual failure load of a structure is calculated, and as will be seen,
this failure load can be significantly greater than the elastic load capacity. However, an elastic
analysis does not give information about the loads that will actually collapse a structure.

Before plastic analyzing complete structures, let us review material and cross section behavior
beyond the elastic limit.

Material behavior

a) Steel structures

A uniaxial tensile stress on a ductile material such as mild steel typically provides the following
graph of stress versus strain:

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Figure 4.1: Stress-strain curve for mild steel

As can be seen, the material can sustain strains far in excess of the strain at which yield occurs
before failure. This property of the material is called its ductility. Though complex models do
exist to accurately reflect the above real behavior of the material, the most common, and
simplest, model is the idealized stress-strain curve. This is the curve for an ideal elastic-plastic
material (which doesn’t exist), and the graph is shown in Figure 4.2. As can be seen, once the
yield has been reached it is taken that an indefinite amount of strain can occur.

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Figure 4.2: Idealized stress-strain curve for mild steel

Since much post-yield strain is modelled, the actual material (or cross section) must also be
capable of allowing such strains. That is, it must be sufficiently ductile for the idealized stress-
strain curve to be valid.

b) Reinforced concrete structures

The design of reinforced concrete structures typically uses elastic theory to calculate moments,
shears and axial forces, but designs the sections based on strength requirements with recognition
that inelastic behavior will occur under overloading. Though this approach is safe and
conservative. It is inconsistent as it does not fully consider the redistribution of moments that
occurs during inelastic response.

When a section yields, a plastic hinge forms allowing large rotations and transferring load to
other sections that may have excess capacity. This leads to moment redistribution. Recognizing
moment redistribution allows a more realistic assessment of the structure's capacity, improving
economy and allowing the designer to modify design moments to reduce reinforcement
congestion.

Tests show that plastic hinges form before other sections reach their limit capacity, allowing the
structure to continue carrying load beyond first yield. The inconsistency in the analysis-design
process, potential for using redistribution to improve efficiency and reduce reinforcement

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congestion, have motivated plastic analysis referred to as limit analysis methods when applied to
reinforced concrete framed structures based on plastic hinge concepts.

All codes for design concrete structures (ES EN 1992-1-1:2015), steel structures (ES EN
1993:2015) and steel-composite structures (ES EN 1994:2015) allow the plastic method of
analysis for framed structures.

Plastic analysis for reinforced concrete beams, frames and slabs (ES EN 1992-1-1:2015 clause
6.2)

Plastic analysis without any direct check of rotation capacity may be used for the ultimate limit
state if the conditions of are met. The required ductility may be deemed to be satisfied without
explicit verification if all the following are fulfilled:

(i) The area of tensile reinforcement is limited such that at any section
𝒙𝒖
≤ 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 for concrete strength classes ≤ 𝐶50/60
𝒅

𝒙𝒖
≤ 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓 for concrete strength classes ≤ 𝐶55/67
𝒅

(ii) Reinforcing steel is either Class B or C

(iii) The ratio of the moments at intermediate supports to the moments in the span should be
between 0.5 and 2.0.

Columns should be checked for the maximum plastic moments which can be transmitted by
connecting members.

In previous chapter (chapter three), we have introduced the plastic method of analysis for 2D
elements (e.g. slabs) called strip method which is based on the lower bound theorem of the
theory of plasticity. In this chapter, we will introduce the plastic method of analysis for line
elements (e.g. beams and frames) called the “plastic hinge theory”.

Cross-section behavior

A knowledge of full plastic moment capacity of a section is important in plastic analysis. The
fully plastic moment 𝑴𝒑 , of a section is defined as the maximum moment of resistance of a
fully yielded cross-section. The cross-section must be fully compact in order to develop its

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plastic strength. The plastic moment capacity, 𝑴𝒑 of a cross-section depends on the material
yield stress and the section geometry.

Let us consider the behavior of a cross section of an ideal elastic-plastic material subject to
bending. In doing so, we seek the relationship between applied moment and the rotation (or more
accurately, the curvature) of a cross section.

Moment-curvature characteristics of general cross-section

We consider an arbitrary cross-section with a vertical plane of symmetry, which is also the plane
of loading. We consider the cross section subject to an increasing bending moment, and assess
the stresses at each stage.

Figure4.3: Cross-section and stresses

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Figure 4.4: Moment-curvature diagram

Stage I: Elastic behavior

The applied moment causes stresses over the cross-section that are all less than the yield stress of
the material.

Stage II: Yield Moment

The applied moment is just sufficient that the yield stress of the material is reached at the
outermost fiber(s) of the cross-section. All other stresses in the cross section are less than the
yield stress. This is limit of applicability of an elastic analysis and of elastic design. Since all
fibers are elastic, the ratio of the depth of the elastic to plastic regions 𝛼 = 1.0.

Stage III: Elasto-Plastic Bending

The moment applied to the cross section has been increased beyond the yield moment. Since by
the idealized stress-strain curve the material cannot sustain a stress greater than yield stress, the
fibers at the yield stress have progressed inwards towards the center of the beam. Thus, over the
cross section there is an elastic core and a plastic region. The ratio of the depth of the elastic core
to the plastic region 1.0 < 𝛼 < 0. Since extra moment is being applied and no stress is bigger

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than the yield stress, extra rotation of the section occurs: the moment-rotation curve losses its
linearity and curves, giving more rotation per unit moment (i.e. loses stiffness).

Stage IV: Plastic Bending

The applied moment to the cross section is such that all fibers in the cross section are at yield
stress. This is termed the Plastic Moment Capacity of the section since there are no fibers at an
elastic stress 𝛼 = 0. Also note that the full plastic moment requires an infinite strain at the
neutral axis and so is physically impossible to achieve. However, it is closely approximated in
practice. Any attempt at increasing the moment at this point simply results in more rotation, once
the cross-section has sufficient ductility. Therefore in steel members the cross section
classification must be plastic and in concrete members the section must be under-reinforced.

Stage V: Strain hardening

Due to strain hardening of the material, a small amount of extra moment can be sustained.

The above moment-rotation curve represents the behavior of a cross section of a regular elastic-
plastic material. However, it is usually further simplified as follows:

Figure 4.5: Idealized moment-curvature relation

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With this idealized moment-rotation curve, the cross section linearly sustains moment up to the
plastic moment capacity of the section and then yields in rotation an indeterminate amount.
Again, to use this idealization, the actual section must be capable of sustaining large rotations –
that is it must be ductile.

Fundamental conditions for plastic analysis

In the elastic analysis, the equilibrium condition, continuity and limiting stress conditions are
satisfied. According to the equilibrium condition, the structure subjected to any system of
loading should be in equilibrium. According to the continuity condition, the distortion or
deformation of the various fibers should be compatible with those of adjacent fibers. According
to the limiting stress conditions, the maximum stress at any section, in any fiber should be less
than the yield stresses i.e. the bending moment should be less than the yield moment.

Similarly, in the plastic analysis, the following fundamental conditions should be satisfied:

1. Mechanism condition

The ultimate or collapse load is reached when a mechanism is formed. The number of plastic
hinges developed should be just sufficient to form a mechanism.

2. Equilibrium condition

The algebraic sum of all vertical forces acting over a structure should be zero. ∑ 𝐹𝑉 = 0

The algebraic sum of horizontal forces acting over the structure should be zero. ∑ 𝐹𝐻 = 0

The moment of all the forces acting over a structure about any point should be zero. ∑ 𝑀 = 0

3. Plastic moment condition

The bending moment at any section of the structure should not be more than the fully plastic
moment of the section.

The plastic analysis disregards the continuity condition as required by the elastic analysis of
indeterminate structures. The formation of plastic hinge in members leads to discontinuity of
slope. If sufficient plastic hinges are formed to allow the structure to deform into a mechanism, it
is called a mechanism condition. Since plastic analysis utilizes the limit of resistance of the

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member’s plastic strength, the plastic moment condition is required to ensure that the resistance
of the cross-sections is not violated anywhere in the structure.

Lastly, the equilibrium condition which is the same condition to be satisfied in elastic analysis
requires that the sum of all applied forces and reactions should be equal to zero and all internal
forces should be self-balanced.

Mechanism and Plastic hinge

When any elastic body is subjected to a system of loads and deformation takes place and the
resistance is set up against the deformation, then the elastic body is known as structure. In
contradiction to this, if no resistance is set up in the body against the deformation, then it is
known as a mechanical mechanism.

When a statically indeterminate structure is subjected to loads and the bending moment diagram
is drawn, it is seen that is two or more points of peak moments. As the loads are gradually
increased, the cross-section having the maximum of these peak moments will reach yield.

A plastic hinge is formed at such a cross-section and the value of bending moment becomes 𝑴𝑷
at the section. As further load is added, this value of bending moment, 𝑴𝑷 remains constant and
this cross-section having the plastic hinge rotates, and other sections having the bending moment
smaller than 𝑴𝑷 maintain the equilibrium with the increased load by a proportionate increase in
moment. These sections having peak point in the bending moment diagram reach yielding and
the plastic hinges are formed in succession. The values of bending moments at these peak points
become 𝑴𝑷 in succession. The process of moment transfer known as the redistribution of
moment due to successive formation of plastic hinges continues. After the formation of sufficient
number of plastic hinges, the structure reduces to a plastic mechanism, and the failure or collapse
of the structure occurs.

What does mean Plastic hinge?

When the cross section of a member is fully plastic under a bending moment, any attempt to
increase this moment will cause the member to act as hinged (a movable joint) at the neutral
axis. Plastic hinge is defined as a yielded zone due to bending in a structural member at which

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an infinite rotation can take place at a constant plastic moment 𝑴𝑷 of the section. The bending
moment producing a plastic hinge is called the full plastic moment and is denoted by ′𝑴𝑷 ′.

Plastic analysis can be generalized into two main approaches. The first approach is known as
plastic hinge analysis. This analysis assumes that structural elements remain elastic except at
critical regions where zero-length plastic hinges are allowed to form.

The second approach is known as plastic-zone analysis. The analysis follows explicitly the
gradual spread of yielding throughout the volume of the structure. Material yielding in the
member is modeled by discretization of members into several beam-column elements and
subdivision of the cross-sections into many fibers.

The plastic-zone analysis can predict accurately the inelastic response of the structure. However,
the plastic hinge analysis is considered to be more efficient than the plastic-zone analysis since
it requires, in most cases, one beam-column element per member to capture the stability of
column members subject to end loading.

If geometric nonlinear effect is not considered, the plastic hinge analysis predicts the maximum
load of the structure corresponding to the formation of a plastic collapse mechanism. First-order
plastic hinge analysis is finding considerable application in continuous beams and low-rise
building frames where members are loaded primarily in flexure.

For tall building frames and for frames with slender columns subjected to side sway, the
interaction between structural inelasticity and instability may lead to collapse prior to the
formation of a plastic mechanism. If equilibrium equations are formulated based on deformed
geometry of the structure, the analysis is termed second order (“exact” plastic analysis).

There are two main assumptions for first-order plastic analysis (approximate analysis):

1) The structure is made of ductile material that can undergo large deformations beyond
elastic limit without fracture or buckling.

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2) The deflections of the structure under loading are small so that second-order effects can
be ignored.

Number of Plastic hinges necessary for failure

The number of hinges necessary for failure does not vary for a particular structure subject to a
given loading condition, although a part of a structure may fail independently by the formation of
a smaller number of hinges. The member or structure behaves in the manner of a hinged
mechanism and in doing so adjacent hinges rotate in opposite directions.

If the degree of static indeterminacy of the structure is 𝒓, then the indeterminate structure
becomes a determinate structure on the formation of n number of the plastic hinges. If one
additional hinge is formed after the structure has become a determinate one, then a mechanism is
formed. Thus, the (𝑟 + 1) number of plastic hinges are necessary to convert a structure into a
mechanism.

For determinate structure, if one plastic hinge is formed, then this structure reduces to a
mechanism. Hence, determinate structures to become mechanism, only one plastic hinge is
needed.

The structure fails or collapses as soon as a mechanism is formed. The load corresponding to the
formation of first plastic hinge is known as yield load, the load corresponding to the formation of
a mechanism is known as collapse or ultimate load.

The formation of plastic hinges results in relatively increase of load. At the plastic hinge stresses
remain constant but strains and hence rotations can increase. The redistribution of moment
further increases the load carrying capacity (reserve strength) of indeterminate structures loaded
beyond the elastic limit.

As an example, let us consider a typical interior span of a continuous beam subjected to

uniformly distributed load (see Figure 4.6).

The possible locations for plastic hinges to develop are at the points of concentrated loads, at the
intersections of members involving a change in geometry, at the fixed and interior support and
at the point of zero shear for member under uniform distributed load.

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The ultimate state is reached when 3 plastic hinges form (2 over the supports plus 1 in the span).

Figure 4.6: Redistribution of inelastic moment and plastic hinge location in interior span of a
continuous beam subjected to uniformly distributed load

After collapsed, the beam is converted statically determinate (i.e. simply supported) and the
ultimate load 𝑤𝑝𝑙 corresponding to the ultimate state is:

𝑤𝑝𝑙 (𝑙)2 𝟏𝟔𝑴𝒑𝒍

From = 2𝑀𝑝𝑙 → 𝒘𝒑𝒍 =
8 𝒍𝟐

Compare with the elastic strength of the continuous beam 𝑤𝑒𝑙 . Here section capacities are
determined on the basis of linear elastic stress distribution where only the extreme fibers have
plasticized.

𝑤𝑒𝑙 (𝑙)2
From elastic structural analysis: 𝑀𝑒𝑙 = 12

𝑀𝑒𝑙 ∗𝑦 𝐼
From flexural formula: 𝜎𝑦 = but = 𝑍𝑒𝑙 where 𝑍𝑒𝑙 is the elastic section modulus
𝐼 𝑦

𝑀𝑒𝑙 𝑤𝑒𝑙 (𝑙)2 𝒁𝒆𝒍 ∗𝝈𝒚 𝑴𝒆𝒍

𝜎𝑦 = = → 𝒘𝒆𝒍 = 𝟏𝟐 ∗ = 𝟏𝟐 ∗
𝑍 12∗𝑍𝑒𝑙 𝒍𝟐 𝒍𝟐

𝟏𝟔𝑴𝒑𝒍
𝒘𝒑𝒍 ⁄𝟐 16 𝑴 16 𝜶𝒑𝒍 ∗𝑴𝒆𝒍
So that, 𝒘 = 12𝑴𝒆𝒍
𝒍
= 12 (𝑴𝒑𝒍 ) = 12 ( ) = 1.3333 ∗ 𝛼𝑝𝑙
𝒆𝒍 ⁄𝟐 𝒆𝒍 𝑴𝒆𝒍
𝒍

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𝒘𝒑𝒍
In general, 𝒘 = 𝛽𝑝𝑙 ∗ 𝛼𝑝𝑙
𝒆𝒍

In summary- in continuous beams or frames (statically indeterminate) there exist a reserved

strength beyond the elastic limit.

Length of plastic zones, ∆𝑳

Theoretically, the plastic hinges are assumed to form at points at which plastic rotations occur.
Thus, the length of a plastic hinge is considered as zero. The values of moment at the adjacent
section of the yield zone are more than the yield moment up to a certain length ∆𝑳 of the
structural member (see Figure 4.7 length of plastic zones for simply supported beam subjected to
central concentrated load 𝑊).

Figure 4.7: Length of plastic zones for simply supported beam subjected to central concentrated
load 𝑊

In a simply supported beam with central concentrated load, the maximum bending moment
𝑊𝐿⁄4 occurs at the center of the beam. As the load is increased gradually, this moment reaches
the fully plastic moment of the section 𝑴𝑷 and a plastic hinge is formed at the center.

𝑀𝑐
From flexural formula: 𝜎 = (𝜎 = 𝑓𝑦 )
𝐼

But, 𝑍𝑃 = 𝐴 ∗ 𝑦̅ where 𝑍𝑃𝑙 is plastic section modulus

ℎℎ 𝑏ℎ2
For rectangular section, 𝑍𝑃𝑙 = 2𝑏 2 4 = 4

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𝑀𝑝 𝑏ℎ2
𝑓𝑦 = → 𝑀𝑝 = 𝑓𝑦 *𝑍𝑃 = 𝑓𝑦 ∗
𝑍𝑃 4

𝑀𝑦 = 𝑓𝑦 ∗ 𝑍𝑒
𝐼
Where 𝑍𝑒 is elastic section modulus and it is given by 𝑍𝑒 = 𝐶

𝑏ℎ3⁄ 𝑏ℎ2
12
For rectangular section, 𝑍𝑒 = ℎ⁄ =
2 6

𝑏ℎ2 𝑏ℎ2 2 𝟐
𝑀𝑦 = 𝑓𝑦 ∗ = (𝑓𝑦 ∗ ) ∴ 𝑴𝒚 = 𝑴𝑷
6 4 3 𝟑

Let 𝒙 = ∆𝑳 be the length of plasticity zone. From the bending moment diagram shown in Figure
4.7 and using similarity of triangles:
𝐿 𝑥
𝑀𝑦 𝑀𝑃 𝑀𝑦 − 𝑥 𝑀𝑝𝑙
2 2
𝐿 𝑥 = 𝐿 →𝑀 = 𝐿 = 1 − 𝐿 where = 𝑓 is known as shape factor
− 𝑃 𝑀𝑦
2 2 2 2

(𝐿 − 𝑥)𝑀𝑃 = 𝐿. 𝑀𝑦

𝟐 1 1
(𝐿 − 𝑥)𝑀𝑃 = 𝐿. 𝑴𝑷 → 𝑥 = 𝐿 = 𝐿 (1 − )
𝟑 3 𝑓

Therefore, the hinged length of the plasticity zone is equal to one-third of the span in this case.

Similarly, the plastic zone lengths of beams with different support and loading conditions are
given in terms of the shape factors (see Figure 4.8).

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1
∆𝐿 = 𝐿 (1 − )
𝑓
∆𝐿

𝑀𝑝
𝑓 = Shape factor= 𝑀
𝑦

1
∆𝐿 ∆𝐿 = 𝐿 (√1 − )
𝑓

𝐿 1
∆𝐿 = (1 − )
2 𝑓
∆𝐿

Figure 4.8: Plastic zone lengths of beams with different support and loading conditions are given
in terms of the shape factors

From the above discussions, we have seen that the following assumptions made in plastic theory:

i. The members should be prismatic members, the value of 𝑀𝑝 is independent of magnitude

of bending moment.
ii. The length of plastic hinge is limited to a point.
iii. Material is very ductile and is capable of undergoing large rotations or curvatures at the
constant moment without breaking.
iv. The presence of axial force and shear force does not change the value of 𝑀𝑝 .
v. The structure remains stable until the formation of last plastic hinge and serviceability
would not be impaired till such time.
vi. Loads acting on structure are assumed to increase in proportion to each other.
vii. Continuity of each joint is assumed.

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Shape factor (f)

Since we now know that a cross section can sustain more load than just the yield moment, we are
interested in how much more. In other words, we want to find the yield moment and plastic
moment.

The ratio of the plastic modulus (𝒁𝒑 ) to the elastic modulus (𝒁𝒆 ) is known as the shape factor
(f).

𝑀𝑝 = 𝑍𝑝 . 𝑓𝑦 ; 𝑀𝑒 = 𝑍𝑒 . 𝑓𝑦

Therefore, shape factor can also be said as the ratio of the collapse moment (𝑴𝒑 ) to the elastic
moment (𝑴𝒆 ).

Significance of shape factor

i. It gives an indication of reserve capacity of a section from onset of yielding at extreme

fibers to full plasticization. If 𝑀𝑦 is known 𝑀𝑝 may be calculated.
ii. A section with higher shape factor gives longer warning before collapse. A section with
higher shape is more ductile and gives greater deflection at collapse.
iii. Greater in the shape factor value, the greater the collapse load factor.

For a rectangular cross-section, we have:

𝑍𝑝𝑙 𝑀𝑝𝑙
𝑓= =
𝑍𝑒𝑙 𝑀𝑒𝑙

Find the yield moment and plastic moment for a rectangular section. Taking the stress
distribution diagrams ranging from elastic, partially plastic to fully plastic.

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Elastic moment 𝑀𝑦

2𝑑
From the diagram: 𝑀𝑦 = 𝐶 ∗ 3

But, the force (or the volume of the stress block) is:

1 𝑑 𝑏𝑑
𝐶 = 𝑇 = 𝜎𝑦 ∗ 2 ∗ 𝑏 ∗ 2 = 𝜎𝑦 ∗ 4

𝑏𝑑 2𝑑 𝑏𝑑2
𝑀𝑦 = (𝜎𝑦 ∗ )∗ = 𝜎𝑦 ∗ = 𝜎𝑦 ∗ 𝑍𝑒𝑙
4 3 6

𝑏𝑑2
(𝑍𝑒𝑙 = ) is a property of the cross section called the elastic section modulus.
6

Elasto-Plastic moment 𝑀𝐸𝑃

The moment in the section is made up of plastic and elastic components:

𝑀𝐸𝑃 = 𝑀′𝐸 + 𝑀′𝑃

The elastic component 𝑀′𝐸 is the same as previous but for the reduced depth, instead of the
overall depth 𝑑:

1 𝛼𝑑 2𝛼𝑑 𝑏𝑑2
𝑀′𝐸 = (2 𝜎𝑦 )( ) = 𝜎𝑦 ∗ 𝛼 2 ∗
2 3 6

The plastic component 𝑀′𝑃

Depth of plastic zone in the elasto-plastic stage ℎ𝑃 is:

𝑑 𝛼𝑑 𝑑
ℎ𝑃 = − = (1 − 𝛼)
2 2 2

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𝑑 𝛼𝑑 𝑑
The lever arm 𝑧 is: 𝑧 = 𝛼𝑑 + ( 2 − ) = 2 (1 + 𝛼)
2

𝑑
The force is: 𝐶𝑃 = 𝜎𝑦 ∗ 𝑏 ∗ ℎ𝑃 = 𝜎𝑦 ∗ 𝑏 ∗ 2 (1 − 𝛼)

𝑑 𝑑 𝑏𝑑2
𝑀′𝑃 = 𝐶𝑃 ∗ 𝑧 = [𝜎𝑦 ∗ 𝑏 ∗ 2 (1 − 𝛼)] ∗ [ 2 (1 + 𝛼)] = 𝜎𝑦 (1 − 𝛼)
4

So, the total Elasto-plastic moment 𝑀𝐸𝑃 is:

𝑏𝑑2 𝑏𝑑2 𝑏𝑑2 (3−𝛼)

𝑀𝐸𝑃 = 𝜎𝑦 ∗ 𝛼 2 ∗ + 𝜎𝑦 (1 − 𝛼) = 𝜎𝑦 ∗ ∗
6 4 6 2

Plastic moment 𝑀𝑃

𝑑
From the stress diagram: 𝑀𝑃 = 𝐶 ∗ 2

𝑑
The force 𝐶 is: 𝐶 = 𝑇 = 𝜎𝑦 ∗ 𝑏 ∗ 2

𝑏𝑑 𝑑 𝑏𝑑2
Hence, 𝑀𝑃 = 𝜎𝑦 ( 2 ) ∗ 2 = 𝜎𝑦 ( ) = 𝜎𝑦 ∗ 𝑍𝑝𝑙
4

𝑏𝑑2
(𝑍𝑝𝑙 = ) is a property of the cross section called the plastic section modulus.
4

𝑏𝑑2
𝑀𝑃 𝜎𝑦 ∗𝑍𝑝𝑙 𝑍𝑝𝑙 4 6
∴𝑓=𝑀 = = = 𝑏𝑑2
= 4 = 1.5
𝑒𝑙 𝜎𝑦 ∗𝑍𝑒𝑙 𝑍𝑒𝑙
6

So, a rectangular section can sustain 50% more moment than the yield moment before a plastic
hinge is formed. Therefore, the shape factor is a good measure of the efficiency of a cross section
in bending.

Shape factor 𝑓 for circular section

𝑍𝑝𝑙
𝑓=
𝑍𝑒𝑙

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𝐼 𝜋𝐷 4⁄ 𝜋𝐷 4 2 𝜋𝐷 3
64
𝑍𝑒𝑙 = 𝑦 = 𝐷⁄ = ∗𝐷=
2 64 32

𝐴 𝜋𝐷 2
𝑍𝑝𝑙 = 2 (𝑦̅1 + 𝑦̅2 ) 𝐴= 4

4𝑟 4(𝐷⁄2) 2𝐷
𝑦̅1 = 𝑦̅2 = 3𝜋 = =
3𝜋 3𝜋

2
(𝜋𝐷 ⁄4) 2𝐷 2𝐷 1 𝜋𝐷 2 4𝐷 𝐷3
𝑍𝑝𝑙 = (3𝜋 + 3𝜋 ) = 2 ∗ ∗ 3𝜋 =
2 4 6

𝑍𝑝𝑙 𝐷 3⁄ 𝐷3 32 32
∴𝑓= = 𝜋𝐷3 6 = ∗ 𝜋𝐷3 = 6𝜋 = 1.697 ≈ 1.70
𝑍𝑒𝑙 ⁄32 6

Shape factor 𝑓 for diamond section 1 𝑑 3 𝑏𝑑 3

𝐼 =2∗[ ∗𝑏∗( ) ]=
12 2 48

𝐼 𝑏𝑑3⁄ 𝑏𝑑2
48
𝑍𝑒𝑙 = 𝑦 = 𝑑 = 24
2

𝐴 1 𝑑 𝑏𝑑
𝑍𝑝𝑙 = 2 (𝑦̅1 + 𝑦̅2 ), 𝐴 = 2 (2 ∗ 𝑏 ∗ 2 ) = 2
1 𝑑 𝑑
𝑦̅1 = 𝑦̅2 = 3 ∗ 2 = 6

𝑏𝑑
𝑑 𝑑 𝑏𝑑 2
𝑍𝑝𝑙 = 2 ( + )=
2 6 6 12
𝑍𝑝𝑙 𝑏𝑑2⁄ 24
12
∴𝑓= = 𝑏𝑑2⁄
= 12 = 2.0
𝑍𝑒𝑙
24

Shape factors for some other cross sections are:

Figure 4.9: Shape factor for different cross sections

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Plastic load factor and theorems of plastic collapse

The plastic load factor at rigid plastic collapse (λ𝑝 ) is defined as the lowest multiple of the design
loads which will cause the whole structure, or any part of it to become a mechanism. In a limit
state approach, the designer is seeking to ensure that at the appropriate factored loads the
structure will not fail. Thus, the rigid plastic load factor λ𝑝 must not be less than unity.

The load factor for a possible collapse mechanism 𝒊 denoted λ𝒊 is of prime importance in plastic
analysis. It is the ratio of the collapse load to the working load in plastic analysis method and the
ratio of the yielding stress to the allowable stress in bending in elastic analysis method.

𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑠𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑠𝑚

λ𝑖 =
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑

Based on fundamental conditions for plastic analysis, we have three theorems of plastic collapse.

i. The upper bound (unsafe) theorem

ii. The lower bound (safe) theorem/Static theorem
iii. The uniqueness theorem
i. The upper bound (unsafe) theorem

This theorem stated that, “if a bending moment diagram is found which satisfies the conditions
of equilibrium and mechanism (but not necessarily yield) then the corresponding load factor is
either greater than or equal to the true load factor at collapse”.

For a given structure subjected to a set of applied loads, a load factor 𝝀𝒖 computed based on an
assumed collapse mechanism must be greater than or equal to the true collapse load factor 𝝀𝒄 .
Upper bound theorem which uses only the mechanism condition, over-estimates or is equal to
the collapse limit load i.e. 𝝀𝒖 ≥ 𝝀𝒄 . It is called the unsafe theorem because for an arbitrarily
assumed mechanism, the load factor is either exactly right (when the yield criterion is met) or is
wrong and is too large (when the yield criterion is exceeded the ultimate strength), leading a
designer to think that the frame can carry more load than is actually possible. Think of it like
this: unless it’s exactly right, it’s dangerous.

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Since a plastic analysis will generally meet the equilibrium and mechanism criteria, by this
theorem a plastic analysis is either right or dangerous. This is why plastic analyses are not used
as often in practice as one might suppose.

ii. The lower bound (safe) theorem

This theorem stated that, “if a bending moment diagram is found which satisfies the conditions
of equilibrium and yield (but not necessarily that of mechanism), then the corresponding load
factor is either less than or equal to the true load factor at collapse”.

For a given structure, if there exists any distribution of bending moments in the structure that
satisfies both the equilibrium and plastic moment conditions, then the load factor 𝝀𝑳 computed
from this moment diagram must be equal to or less than the collapse load factor 𝝀𝒄 of the
structure. Lower bound theorem provides a safe estimate of the collapse limit load i.e. 𝝀𝑳 ≤ 𝝀𝒄 .

This is a safe theorem because the load factor will be less than (or at best equal to) the collapse
load factor once equilibrium and yield criteria are met leading the designer to think that the
structure can carry less than or equal to its actual capacity. Think of it like this: it’s either wrong
and safe or right and safe.

Since an elastic analysis will always meet equilibrium and yield conditions, an elastic analysis
will always be safe. This is the main reason that it is elastic analysis that is used, in spite of the
significant extra capacity that plastic analysis offers.

iii. The uniqueness theorem

This theorem state that, “if a bending moment distribution can be found which satisfies the three
conditions of equilibrium, mechanism, and yield, then the corresponding load factor is the true
load factor at collapse”.

A structure at collapse has to satisfy three conditions. First, a sufficient number of plastic hinges
must be formed to turn the structure or part of it into a mechanism. This is called the mechanism
condition. Second, the structure must be in equilibrium i.e. the bending moment distribution
must satisfy equilibrium with the applied loads. Finally, the bending moment at any cross-
section must not exceed the full plastic value of that cross-section. This is called the plastic
moment condition.

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The theorem simply implies that the collapse load factor 𝜆𝑐 obtained from the three basic
conditions (mechanism, equilibrium and plastic moment) has a unique value. The Uniqueness
Theorem does not claim that any particular collapse mechanism is unique – only that the collapse
load factor is unique. Although, rare it is possible for more than one collapse mechanism to
satisfy the uniqueness theorem but they will have the same load factor.

Note: An assumed plastic mechanism leading to a collapse load need not imply that a bending
moment distribution in equilibrium with the external loads can exist for such a mechanism.

Example: Assumed mechanism – equilibrium not satisfied.

Summary

Plastic theorems Criterion Load factor

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Upper bound theorem Mechanism and equilibrium 𝜆 ≥ 𝜆𝑐

Lower bound theorem Yield and equilibrium 𝜆 ≤ 𝜆𝑐
Unique theorem Mechanism, yield and equilibrium 𝜆 = 𝜆𝑐
It can be seen that, the lower bound theorem is based on the equilibrium approach while the
upper bound technique is based on the mechanism approach. These two alternative approaches to
an exact solution called the equilibrium method and the mechanism method respectively will be
discussed in the next section which is dealing with methods of plastic analysis.

Methods of Plastic Analysis

There are three main approaches for performing a plastic analysis:

a) The Incremental method

b) The Static method or Equilibrium method

c) The Kinematic method or Mechanism method/Virtual Work method

a) The Incremental method

The loads on the structure are incremented until the first plastic hinge forms. This continues until
sufficient hinges have formed to collapse the structure. This is a labor-intensive ‘brute-force’
approach but one that is most readily suited for computer implementation.

b) The Static method or Equilibrium method

In the static method of analysis the ‘free bending moment’ diagrams for the structure are drawn
and the ‘fixed bending moment’ diagrams are then added algebraically. These diagrams are
overlaid to identify the likely locations of plastic hinges. The magnitude and sense negative or
positive of the moments must be such that sufficient plastic hinges occur to cause the collapse of
the whole or a part of the structure.

This method therefore satisfies the equilibrium criterion first leaving the two remaining criterion
to derived therefrom. The equilibrium method, which employs the lower bound theorem, is
suitable for the analysis of continuous beams and frames in which the structural redundancies are
not exceeding two.

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The procedures for obtaining the equilibrium equations of a statically indeterminate structure and
to evaluate its plastic limit load or collapse load. To obtain the equilibrium equations of a
statically indeterminate structure:

Step1: Select the redundant(s).

Step2: Free the redundant(s) and draw a moment diagram for the determinate structure under the
applied loads.

Step3: Draw a moment diagram for the structure due to the redundant forces.

Step4: Superimpose the moment diagrams in Steps 2 and 3.

Step5: Obtain the maximum moment at critical sections of the structure utilizing the moment
diagram in Step 4.

Step6: Select value(s) of redundant(s) such that the plastic moment condition is not violated at
any section in the structure.

Step7: Determine the load corresponding to the selected redundant(s).

Step8: Check for the formation of a mechanism.

If a collapse mechanism condition is met, then the computed load is the exact plastic limit load.
Otherwise, it is a lower bound solution. Adjust the redundant(s) and repeat Steps 6 to 8 until the
exact plastic limit load is obtained.

c) The Kinematic method or Mechanism method/Virtual Work method

Probably the easiest way to carry out a plastic analysis is through the Kinematic method using
virtual work. To do this, we allow the presumed shape at collapse to be the compatible
displacement set and the external loading and internal bending moments to be the equilibrium
set. We can then equate external and internal virtual work, and solve for the collapse load factor
for that supposed mechanism.

Principle of Virtual Work method

The principle of virtual work states that if deformable elastic body is in equilibrium under a
system of external loads and remains in equilibrium while it is subjected to a small virtual

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deformation, the external virtual work done by the external forces acting on the body is equal to
the internal virtual work of deformation done by the internal stress.

Note that in the actual collapse configuration, the members will have elastic deformation in
between the plastic hinges. However, since a virtual displacement does not have to be real only
compatible, we will choose to ignore the elastic deformations between plastic hinges, and take
the members to be straight between them.

∴ The work done by external force, 𝑊𝑒 = The work absorbed by the plastic hinges at
collapse 𝑊𝑖

In plastic analysis, internal deformations are assumed to be concentrated at plastic hinges.

The virtual work equation for hinged structures:

∑ 𝑃𝑖 𝛿𝑗 = ∑ 𝑀𝑖 𝜃𝑗

𝑊𝑒 = 𝑃𝑖 ∗ 𝛿𝑗 𝑃𝑖 is an external load

𝑊𝑖 = 𝑀𝑖 ∗ 𝜃𝑗 𝑀𝑖 is an internal moment(Plastic moment) at a hinge location

Where 𝜹𝒋 the displacements under the point loads 𝑷𝒊 and 𝜽𝒋 the plastic hinge rotations under the
moment 𝑴𝒊

This method of analysis is based directly on the upper bound theorem. The basic idea is to try all
the likely collapse mechanisms and select the one which gives the lowest collapse load. The
steps involved are as follows:

Step1: Identify the likely plastic hinge locations (under point loads, at supports, at joints, at zero
shear positions under spread loads).

Step2: Sketch all the likely collapse mechanisms.

Step3: For each mechanism use virtual work to calculate the collapse load factor.

Step4: Select the mechanism which gives the lowest load.

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Step5: For this chosen case, check that 𝑀 ≤ 𝑀𝑝 (this is just to check that the selected mechanism
is indeed the correct one). If this condition is not satisfied, the correct mechanism has been
overlooked.

Collapse mechanisms

When a system of loads is applied to an elastic body, it will deform and will show a resistance
against deformation. Such a body is known as a structure. On the other hand, if no resistance is
set up against deformation in the body, then it is known as a mechanism.

Various types of independent mechanisms are identified to enable prediction of possible failure
modes of a structure.

a) Beam mechanism
b) Panel or Sway mechanism
c) Gable mechanism
d) Joint mechanism
e) Combined mechanism
a) Beam mechanism

Simply supported beam

A simply supported beam has to form one plastic hinge at the point of maximum bending
moment. Redundancy 𝑟 = 0

𝑟 = Redundancy of the structures

𝑁 = Number of possible plastic hinge
𝑁 = 𝑟+1 =0+1=1
𝑛 = Number of possible independent and combined mechanism
𝑛 =𝑁−𝑟 =1−0=1

Propped cantilever beam

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A propped cantilever requires two hinges to form a mechanism. Redundancy 𝑟 = 1

𝑟 = Redundancy of the structures

𝑁 = Number of possible plastic hinge
𝑁 = 𝑟+1 =1+1=2
𝑛 = Number of possible independent and combined mechanism
𝑛 = 𝑁−𝑟 = 2−1= 1
Fixed beam

A fixed beam requires three hinges to form a mechanism. Redundancy 𝑟 = 2

independent and combined
𝑟 = Redundancy of the structures
mechanism
𝑁 = Number of possible plastic hinge
𝑁 = 𝑟+1 =2+1=3
𝑛 = Number of possible independent and combined mechanism
𝑛 = 𝑁−𝑟 = 3−2= 1

Continuous beams (Partial collapse)

independent and combined
mechanism

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Collapse pattern 3:
;

𝑟 = Redundancy of the structures = 2

𝑁 = Number of possible plastic hinge
𝑁 = 𝑟+1 =2+1=3
𝑛 = Number of possible independent and combined mechanism
𝑛 = 𝑁 − 𝑟 = 3 − 2 = 1 per span
b) Panel or Sway mechanism
Sway mechanism for a portal frame fixed at both ends (Strong beam-Weak column).
independent and combined
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𝑟 = Redundancy of the structures = 3

𝑁 = Number of possible plastic hinge
𝑁 = 𝑟 + 1 = 3 + 1 = 4 But we have considered three plastic hinges
𝑛 = Number of possible independent and combined mechanism
𝑛 = 3 (1 Beam mechanism, 1 Sway mechanism and 1 combined
mechanism)

independent and combined

mechanism
Strong Column-Weak Beam Strong beam-Weak Column

Sway mechanism Sway mechanism

c) Gable Mechanism
The gable mechanism for a gable structure fixed at both the supports.

d) Joint mechanism
It occurs at a joint where more than two structural members meet.

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e) Combined mechanism

Various combinations of independent mechanisms can be made depending upon whether the
frame is made of strong beam and weak column combination or strong column and weak beam
combination. It is a combination of a beam and sway mechanism.

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