CHEMISTRY 1

EXAM NOTE
 THE PROPERTIES OF GASES Gas :

large collection of particles moving at random

throughout a
mostly empty space
volume
indefinite shape .
·

a
gas has no shape nor volume >
it can be compressed expanded
-

or
They have
large amount of energy. low
density
·

gas molecules are

generally far away and more randomly
1Pa =
1kgm s = 1Nm-2
temperature of gas kinetic energy (higher temp > molecules m o re
quicker (
-
+

1 bar =
100 kPa
gas pressure P the result of collisions of the gas molecules with the surface of the container
:

P =
I unit area
Force 1 atm =
101 325 kPa
.
=
760 Torr

Atmospheric pressure
:
result of air molecules in the environment 2 Torr
1 =
133 322 Pa
.

The gas laws :

Charles law :
Boyles law :

Gay-Lussac's Law :

-
For fixed For fixed of the pressure exerted
a amount of
gas at a amount
gas at by a
gas at

court .
temperature const. ,
pressure const .
Volume

volume is
inversely proportional to
pressure volume is directly proportional
is directly proportional
to its abs
. Temperature
to the abs .
temperature
PV =
court .
PiVi =
PfVt

=
Avogadro's principle :

vomme
roueen
Under the same conditions of temperature and pressure dar
a
given number of gas molecules occupy Um =

the same volume regarden of their chemical identity amount

(limiting law , valid only

The gas constant R pressure
THE IDEAL GAS LAW PV nRT for low
:

: =

. 21
8 10 Latm K = mol-1
· .

. 31 10-2L
8 bar K-1 mol
·

Combined gas law predicting

·
·

:
molar volume of ideal gas : moles and mass :

. 31 L kPa K-1 mol

0 - .

mas

V
m o re s -
8 31 J K· mol-1
T
molecular mass
Vm
.

.
= =

mol-
62 36 Torr K-1
=
.

u
standard ambient and (SATP) :
2501bar 24 78
temperature pressure
.

standard temperature and pressure (STP) :

O'C 19th
°
O C 16ar 22 71
.

Density
:

= 250 1 atm

the
greater the molar mass
, the greater the density
Mole traction X :
relation between total pressure of a mixture

andDanial
Xi=
Dalton's law of partial pressures :
The total pressure of a mixture pressures of the componea
with&
same
Ivemmes of gases is the sum of their individual partial pressures
composition of a
gas
:

%
weight i
·

Pi =
Xi Ptot
Real gases
:
(intermolecular forces present
vomme ;
% vomme 100
Vi Xi Vot
·
= -
·

; =

Compression factor Z : volume tot

the ratio of the actual molar volume

Um
z =
-

of the gas to the ideal gas Um ideal Calculating the mass of reagent needed
to react with a specified volume of gas :

(2 of an ideal
gas
is 1)
1) Find molar volume

2) Stechiometric relation from equation

van der Waals equation
(p az)(V
:

+ -

ub) = nRT 3) Molar mall of reagent

a : role of replssions
4) Convert from volume of
gas to mass of
reagent
6 :
role of attractions
Calculating partial pressures/volumes
:

when 21 intermolecular

z= - repulsions are

(2 < 1 attractions )
dominant 1)
2)
Find

Total amount of
amounts of

gas
gases (in moves

3) Calculate more tractions (Xi =)

4) Multiply by total pressure/volume
 LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS
- INTERACTING PARTICLES-
intermolecular forces for the existence of phases of matter iom ious not present
amount
ions present latous ,
molecules ,

S
↓ !
solids and liquids are condensed phases
↓ nonpolar
molecules
↓
polar molecules · DISPERSION
molecules in compounds are held
by intermolecular forces IONIC BONDING DIPOLE-DIPOLE FORCES
ions only
FORCES

hydratienattachmentwatermomulesto
solute a V
pr
H20
ION-DIPOLE FORCES ↓ DIPOLE-INDUCED
outpolar molecule HYDROGEN DIPOLE FORCES

BOND ING polart nonpolar

ION-DIPOLE INTERACTIONS are strong for small , highly charged iou
(bonded to N 0 F)
molecules
, ,

(they are often hydrated in companies

DIPOLE-DIPOLE INTERACTIONS
polar molecules contain atours with different electronegativities ,
molecules organize themselves to maximize attractive forces

interactions weaker than forces between ions and fall with distance
the are
rapidly

LONDON FORCES
attractive interaction that acts between all molecules and the
only interaction between nonpolar molecules

more electrons - increased polarizability (2) and London force

m
the ease with which electron clouds Ep
be distorted
closely related can

DIPOLE-INDUCED DIPOLE INTERACTION

·

when a polar molecule interacts with a nonpolar molecule loxygen dissolving in water !

i t arises from the

ability of one molecule to induce a dipole moment in the other

HYDROGEN BONDING :
bound to N,0 , F (highly electronegative
van der waals interactions :
Eph-to
strongest intermolecular interactions
·

BONDING FORCES -
>

Liquids have fixed volume and density

viscosity
:
resistance to flow
indication of
straught of forces
·

between molecules

decreases when temp rises

·
.

surface tension :
net inward pull
·
allows to resist external force due to
3 resive nature of its molecules

decreases when temp rises

·
.

adhesion :
find a substance to a surface
capillary action :
rise of liquids up narrow tubes
cohesion :
kind molecules of a substance together to form a bulk material

when the temperature is low and the molecules do not have

enough energy to escape from their neighbors >
-

the substance solidifies

the nature of the solid depends on the type of forces that hold atoms ,
ious or molecules
together

crystalline solid :
moluses in orderly array (long range order) ,
( flat, well-defined planar surfaces

amorphous solid
:
molecules distorted random
,
(short range order)

TYPES OF CRYSTALINE SOLIDS :

MOLECULAR SOLID :
NETWORK SOLID :
IONIC SOLID :
METALLIC SOLID :

cations bound by their

atoms held together consists of catious and
atom and molecules held interaction with the
by intermolecular forces
in large networks anious held together
covalent bonds electrical attraction
surrounding sea of electrons
by by that they have lost
physical properties depend ·

ex Carbon and its of opposite charges

strength of Cianic band)
.

on the those force ceramic mat UNIT CELL :

the smallest unit that
allotropes ,
. ,

relatively sett ,
low
bailing ·

hard , rigid , high

IONIC CRYSTALS :
electro-neutral whenstuchtogetherrepet
a
a

melting points
interactions are maximized ,
and melting and opposite charge
boiling
>
-

p. can reproduce the entire crystal

equale charge-minimized
·
covalent bonds are much
than intermolecular forces
all
crystal structures can be expressed
stronger
by 14 basic patterns >
- Bravais Lattice

LIQUID CRYSTALS :
substances thatfhow like viscious liquids but molecules a re
arranged
, like in crystals
in an
orderly array
and molecular order of solid
example of a mesophase I
an intermediate state of matter with fluidity of liquid a

responsive to electric fields and changes in temperature

 THERMODYNAMICS 1811 not state

↳
function (depends on how the energy was brought about
WORK :
motion against a n opposing force
SYSTEM
+ SURROUNDINGS = UNIVERSE
achieving
expansion rock
change in volume of system ,
:
a
open system can
exchange both matter and energy with the
surrounding work
system has fixed amount o f matter but with the
nonex
pansion
closed can
exchange energy surrounding
·

·
isolated
system has no contact with the
surroundings ENERGY :
capacity of a
system to do work

state
↓ not stateentien function
-
INTERNAL ENERGY :
total store of energy in a
system
HEAT :
energy transfer terr t of temperature difference heat flow low
as
high
: -
depends every
AU Ufinal Vinitial w
- =
=

on the current
stage
exotuemiproces as uatmourouding measurement :
of the
system

adiabatic wal-Mermally ins a a

reversible process : can be reversed
by an
infinitely small

change in
supplied-
variable
weat
capacity heat
amp
diathermic wall - permits transfer of energy as heat

specific heat capacity (divided by man et sample) 9

=
mC , DT molar heat
capacity (divided by amount of moles) q
=
nCmDT

FIRST LAW :
THE INTERNAL ENERGY OF AN ISOLATED SYSTEM IS CONSTANT DU =
9 + W

ENTHALPY = the state function that allows keeping track of energy changes (at count ,
pressure with no expansion work AH =
9)
AHO exothermic reactions

H = U + PV a
change in enthalpy of a
system is equal to the heat released or absorbed a t court.
pressure AH >0 endothermic reactions

when a phase transition takes place at court. pressure , the heat transfer accompanying the phase change is equal the change in enthalpy of the substance

ENTHALPY OF PHYSICAL CHANGE energy provided when molecules are

separated (vaporization
enthalpy of vaporization
:

Attrap =
Hm(rapor)
-

Hm(liquid energy released (condensation

men molecules come closer together
at given temp the vapor phase higher energy -> higher enthalpy
has than the liquid phare

↳
a ,

the difference in molar

enthalpies vaper and liquid states Atreverse =
- AHforward
process process
compounds with strong intermolecular forces (hydrogen bonds) have highest euth of vaporisation
AH
AHus AHvap
+
the measure of
energy needed to separate molecules from their attractions in the liquid state sublimation
=
Hulraper) -

Hulsolia) =

AHtm DHm(liquid) -AHm/solid)

=

ensuralpy fusion enthalpy of freezing

:

of :

change in molar
enthalpy of liquid been it solidities
all are
positive (fusion is endothermia) (except relium)
heating curve graph shoring variation in
:

temp , at a coust .

reaction
ENTHALPY OF CHEMICAL CHANGE themochemical equation rate of increase in enthalpy
>
- exothermic & enthalps 2
the steeper the slope + the lower the heat capacity
combustion
e complete reaction with + 2C02(9) -CO2(a) 2H20(1) AH -890k]
oxygen (Hy(9)
+ =

Stoichiometric coefts indicate the number of moles to

Chigh heat cap. of water -
hydrogen banding
relation DH and Al
,

reacting gave the

reported change in enthalpy
standard enthalpy of combustion AH ,
AH =
AV +
AugaRT , Dugan
=
final-Minitial ,
Argan =
O-AH =
AU reactionenthalpynlesnegativethate e gas
he is the
change in enthalpy per mole
of substance burned in a combustion

standard reaction enthalpy

AH is the reaction
enter alply when reactants in standard states change
into products in standard states
reaction under standard condition

HESS LAW the

o verall is the of the reaction enthalpies steps in divided
en
theirmos
:
reaction of the which a reaction can be
enthalpy sum
in

E
standard enthalpy of formation AHF is the standard reaction enthalpy per mole of formula units for the formation of a substance from its elements

a the standard enthalpy et

bothincreas
i

Stealp-AH =
Enprodu -Eataut refers to a w hich all
substance in atoms
formation of a n element in
in it's most stable form isO
are
perfectly ordered array
AHmlions 9)
,
BORN-HABER CYCLE
enthalpy AHL L
THE Lattice
=

AHm(solia)
-
: ,
no positional disorder no thermal disorder
,

difference in molar enthalpy of solid and gas of widely separated iews THIRDLAW THE ENTROPIES OF ALL
:
PERFECT CRYSTAL) APPROACH ZERO AS ABS TEMP . . APPROACHES ZERO

functions
state
measures disorder
in
energy must
betransferred Troutaus rule entropies
:
of vaporisation
change
ENTROPY increases in a course of any spontaneous change entropy
reversibly
entropy change
are close to 85 JK me
=
Cm exceptions hydrogen banding
:

AS is neated
we e
slee
a spontaneous change has a tendency to occur without external force AS =

T to
E Tz
boiling temp temp :
at which
Vapor pressure = external
pressure
neat
capacity
of the system

1) at transition temp the terpot

.
the substance remains constant as heat is supplied
2) at a temp of phase transition ,
the transfer of heat is reversible

3) the weat supplied is equal to the change in enthalpy of the substance

+
effect of temp .
en GPE

standard
entropy of
beingpaint Sp
Stand mettiertari presen As
&

all
a perio

standard reaction entropy AS AS =

Ensiprods) -
En SinCractant
A <O endothermic AST0 exothermic
AS +
AS
total
entropy change
: AS tot sun

positive > spontaneous process

-

Assu
=

-As decrease as

rarpual
negative ->
reverse
process spontaneous
criteriou for spontaneity :
increase in total entropy of a system and its surroundings as

EQUILIBRIUM no
tendency to change in either direction AS to 0
=

dynamic equilibris :
forward and reverse
process continue at
matching rates

equilibrium :
AG =
0
state function
GIBBS FREE ENERGY DE =
DH-TDS
change at court.
:
temperature
the GFE of a substance decreases as temperature is raised at court ,
pressure

GFE ot reaction : DG =
EnGm/products) -

[nGulreactants) AGCO -
spontaneous >
-
depends on the composition of reaction mixture

EnGilproduct) In Gilreactants
↳ doanda
standard GFE et AG e fixed for a given reaction temp.
-
reaction and
-

=
:

proces

DG0 (AG" O rustable) DG,"

>
thermodynamically stable compand Standard Gibbs free energy et formation
↳ nonliable rustable but survive for St GFE ot reaction
:
long periods of time .

permole for the formation of a

compound
from its elements in most stable forms
Is liable mustable but decompose quickly
:

most stable forms - lowest Gibbs free

energy
 PHYSICAL EQUILIBRIA
Vapor pressure :
at a fixed temperature ,
as
long as some liquid is
present ,
the
vapor exerts a characteristic pressure regardless of the amount of liquid water present

dynami :
rate of evaporation rate ot condensation we
Vapor is in
dynamic equilibrium with the condenced are

[it intm. forces strong har vapour pressure , high enthalpy of vaporisation] !
numbere elec
,a
:

Liquids with high vapor pressure are volatile -

high vaper p. real intermolecular forces /compounds forming hydrogen bouds are les volatile ; Same
the
vapor pressure of liquid depends easily their forces of attraction -
at is available to do so
a on how the molecules can overcome
higher temp more energy

vapor pressure rises with

increasing temperature BOILING :
>
-
the increase in up

Map strap when the temp. is raised to the point when the vaper pressure atmospheric .
p
=
greatest for substances

eils (vaporisation throughout the liguial

with
high enthalpies of the Liquid occurs
Clausius-Claperyon equation
:

Vaporisation (strong inte Force)

FREEZING AND MELTING

the
:

beiling pointmentvaperpart
atnormal -

freezing temp temp at which

.
>
-
, the solid and liquid are in
dynamic equilianim high boiling point > strong
->
internal. forces
melting temp of
= solid . a

normal
freezing pointI f is the mp . When the liquid freezes at 1 atm
bonds
When we melts the
lye .

la liquid
,
that survives below its
freezing point ->
supercoded collapse and the water molecules
PHASE DIAGRAMS
the
metting point of liquids increase with press use ↓ can
pack closer together
bonds in ice Phase boundaries :

water is less than that of ice

water at
melting point the molar volume of liquid hydrogen
: -

any point between two

critical points
:

regions
, the
neighboring
temperature Tc phases exist in equilibrium
above which there cannot be
temp
:
critical transition from
vaper to
liquid
.

↳ increases with the strength of London forces it one is vaper

:

the be
vaper of a substance can
critical pressure P: end to
of liquid-vaper boundary condensed into liquid by the the pressure corresp ,

application if it's the

of
pressure only equilibrium is the
>
-
supercritical third I can exist above its critical
point ( below its critical temperature vaper pressure

SOLUBILITY ↓ thedissolveda
a slope at sol -lig
. .

saturated solution in which the solvent has dissolved all the solute that it can are in
dynamic eq
. boundary :

reveals relative densities

molar solubility
, S is a molar concentration of a substance in a saturated solution

it negative
:

LIKE-DISSOLVES-LIKE RULE
(hydrophylic-water attracting hydrophobic + water repelling

ra.
,

Henry's Law :
S =
KP the solubility of a
gas
is directly proportional to its partial pressure
Henry's constant depends on the because an increase in pressure corresponds to the rate at which
solvent and temperature gas molecules strike the surface of the solvent
gas ,

The rate of dissolving (but not necessarily solubility) increases at higher temperatures
E
temp . and solubility

ENTHALPY OF SOLUTION :
THE CHANGE IN MOLAR ENTHALPY WHEN A SUBSTANCE DISSOLVES ANSON

dissolving as a two-step process :

hydration is always exothermic

↓
AHL
AHuyd
because of the formation of
lattice
enthalpy
enthalpy
ethydratin
a
:

ion-dipole attractions between

molar
enthalpy of
l ous separating from a solid to form gas
the final solution
the water molecules and is m

(weak attractive forces >

-
low lattice enthalpiel & (negative and
comparable to DHL)

(positive enthalpy-net inflor energy) high charge and small ionic radius contribute
enthalpy change for the overall process
:
Also AHAHya of
to
high enthalpy of hydration (but also to high
Lattice
enthalpy hard to make
assumptions
I

THE GIBBS FREE ENERGY OF SOLUTION

that energy is released substance dissolves solid

the
heat then

disorderotasystemtypicallycreaseze
a
negative enthalpy of solution implies as a a dis
a

AG AH-TAS
process spontaneous ? change in entropy considered
. negative enthalpy AG is negative overall
> =
is the of the
-

system must be with

>
-
negative enthalpies of solution for substances
expected to be soluble
a solute dissolves
spontaneously only
until AG =
0
dissolvedandundsolutiona
a saturated

amount of solute (mall

COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES Usolute
MOLE FRACTION
+ N somet
solute
depend the relative amount of solute and solvent and not the chemical identity
~
properties that on on
total amount of solute
independent
·

j
of and solvent (mall
-
LOWERING VAPOR PRESSURE OF THE SOLVENT
all involve equilibrium between

-
e
temp
=
RASING BOILING POINT OF THE SOLVENT two of the solvent MOLALITY
phases
-
LOWERING FREEZING POINT OF THE SOLVENT Cosmosis : 2 sol .
with different
mase ot solent (kg)
concentrations (
-
OSMOSIS moves of solute

Vapor pressure lowering

MOLARITY solute liters of solution

perprese
a
moll

Raoult's law : traction

↓
4
P Pi
a traper
e
Vapor pressure of a solvent is proportional to its move traction in a solution =
X: Molar entropy

ideal (nonideal
↑
solutions dey Rasult's lar do not the vapor pressure of a solvent
enthalpies
is lower in the presence of a noudative solute significant sine

Boiling point elevation and freezing point depression also due to the effect of the solute dittet
-
raper
wa
the
on
entropy of the
system
because vapor pressure is lowered by the
presence of a moudatile solution , the beiling point of the solvent rises a

t p d
.
. .

for cuideal solution is proportional

freezing point depression :
ATF =

Kybsolute to the
morality of the solute Ifi freezing point constant
↑ for solution
a
nonelectrolyte
Osmosis

the flow of solvent through a membrane into a more concentrated solution moder
entropy
riquid
greater for

(semipermeable membrane permits only certain

types of molecules and
ious to pass
through
enthalpies
solvent flows metil the molar Gibbs free energy for similar
Osmotic pressure It side of the membranc
required to step the flow of solvent the solvent is the same on each
:

pressure

van't Hoft equation :

osmotic pressure of a dilute solution

# =
MRT
is related to the molarity of the solute

reverse osmosis :

reverse flow of solvent caused by applying a o smotic pressure to the

pressure greater than the
solution side of the semipermnable membrane .
It increases the rate at which solvent molemles leave the solution
 CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIA
clemical reactions tend toward
dynamic equilibrium but forward and reactions still
taking place at the rate
-
a no net
change reverse are same

ALL CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIA ARE DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIA

( denote equilibrium reaction)
Chemical equilibrium is achieved when :
treated as ideal for any reaction
gaves are
Y
·
the of the forward and reactions equal a A (g) +
b B(g) (g) dD(g)
c +

PI
rate reverse are

the concentrations of reactants and products remain constant of

products
equations !
·
antial pressure
remember met is nic
activity for
K =
each
type of i n
partial pressure of reactants
The law of mass action :
at equilibrium the reaction mixture can be expressed
in terms of an
equilibrium
-
countant for liquids and solids K is expressed by molarity [3]
be
can
l y by
changed varying temperature
homogeneous equilibria reactants and product in the same phase (heterogeneous phases
:
: more

TERMODYNAMIC ORIGIN OF EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT :

1G =
End products EnGrectants (nits :
k])
in reaction mixture that has yet produced to reach equilibrium spontaneous direction of change
a not
enough products ,

is toward more
products AGCO for the forward reaction
·
in a reaction mixture that has excess products ,
the reverse reaction is spontaneous and AGXO for the forward reaction

(AG0 for reverse

·
at equilibrium AG =
0

* G is indicated by the the curve forward reaction spontaneous positive reverse reaction spontaneous
slope of
>
negative
->
: ->
,

The value of DG at a particular stage of the reaction is the difference in molar Gibbs free energies of products and reactants

Enomutants

products
Lumits :K mo -
the mdar Gibbs freenergies ot pr and ca n
see
the reaction
during
reaction quotient standard Gibbs free energy
AGri
>
- of reaction does not
AGr = +
RTIQ
form as
for
same

-RTIKAGkproduttaa
activities are
stage of reaction
↳
atequilibrium : AG =
0 ,
Q =
K +
AGr =

THE EXTENT OF REACTION :

A Gr is
strongly negative
->
mostly products at equilibrium
predicting direction of reaction :
>
-
K is large (AGro positive >
-
k small)
1) calculate
Q (reverse reaction

THE DIRECTION OF REACTION : 2) Q<K - products (forward reaction) ,

Q - K +
reactants

QK AGO the reaction has

proceed towards
+ +
tendency to
·

products
·

a= k + AG = 0 - equilibrium ·

the equilibrium constant for the overall reaction

Q>K -
AG > 0 > the reverse reaction in is the
product equilibrium constants of the
spontaneous
-

of the
·

,
component reactions
products decompose into reactants

EQUILIBRIUM CALCULATIONS :

calculating equilibrium composition :

kp =
(RT)B
*

kc >
-

k =
(no3)k relations : aA + bB = c + dDk1 1) calculate initial partial
4 Py =
nyRT/v
0 083 cC bBk = pressures
...
dD aA
partial calculations
+ + Coelt
Kp xyStech
.

· : .

2) set up table
-

KI molar concentrations naA +n GB Xn c C + u dD Ky

·
: . . .

3) arrange the equation for K

CHANGES IN CONDITIONS in terms of X
THE RESPONCE OF EQUILIBRIA TO

4) solve for X and calculate partial

when the equilibrium is disturbed by adding or pressure

removing a reactant AG is changed and ,

the composition shifts until AG 0

again
=
.

predicting the effect of temperature on an

equilibrium
Le Chatelier's principle :
1) verify that the reaction is exothermic

when stress is
applied to a
system 2) find the standard reaction enthalpy (from enthalpy of formation
in dynamic equilibrium
, example :
250(9) + 02(g) 250 , (9)
the equilibrium tends to adjust DHo =
12 ma) ·

DHI (50s) -
12ma) ·
AH +
·

1502) = -
197 .
70k]
to minimize the effect of the stress >
-
because formation of soz is exothermic (DH °< 0,
the reverse reaction is endothermic and therefore favoured
when is raised
the temperature
ADDING AND REMOVING REAGENTS :

reaction responds until Q K

added QCK by forming products
=
·
when reactants are >
- -

when products added Q3K reaction responds until Q K

by forming
·
are >
- >
-
reactants
=

K does not Q changes !

change ! Only affects gas species only !
x
·
a reaction mixture can be compressed and
-
will respond to minimize stress

2NO
neither direction correspond
after compression Onfavours roducts 1 H2 + 12 2H)
to reduction of molecules
> no
-
effect

TEMPERATURE AND EQUILIBRIUM

!!! the equilibrium constant kp changes with change in temperature
for exothemic reaction lowering temp. favours products
+

for endo thermic reaction increase u temp favours products

-
.

- raising the temperature of a reaction mixture at equilibrium will shift

the reaction in the endothermic direction

van't Hoff equation is the quantitative version of Le Chatelier's

principle

[m-causetemp reaction
 ACIDS AND BASES BASES :
ventrialisation
ACIDS
react with
:

'active' metals
with auds form is nic salts
reac t to
(AL , zn Fe not Cu , Ag An
(NaOH Ca(OH)c)
, , ,

most ionic bases contain OH ion

Hydronium ious >
-
H ous produced by the aid and very reactive
·

·
some contain CO2 ions (CaCOgNattCOs)
,

react with carbonates producing CO2 Oxyaid no ad

hydro
a
H2SO4 , HNO)
(protons
.

+ + react with water molecules (CaCOz + 2HU +

Ca((z + Coz + 120)
H + H20 >
Hz0 they molecular bases contain structures that
carboxylic and Cool
group
·
- ·

with bases to form ionic salts

reac t
react with Ht (mostly amine groups) only the first I in the formula is acdic !
audKal
Einunswichave e
a
·

BRONSTED-LOWRY HF HU)
ACIDS AND BASES
,

LEWIS ACIDS AND BASES

ACID -
proton donor BASE >
-

proton acceptor
contains acidic
has a love pair of electrons to ACID -> electron pair acceptor BASE - electron pair donor
hydrogen atom
which a proton c a n band
when base donates electron pair to acd
proton transfer reaction : a proton is transferred from acid to base
a an an

>
- ai d becomes
deprotonised
>
-
they become
joined by a COORDINATE COVALENT BOND

in solution Lewis theory is broader than the Bronsted definition

Teache
Strong ad fully deprotonated
:

Weak acid :

partly deprotonated in solution

arait e
-

-
metal atoms and

Brousted base is a
ious

special
can

kind
act as a

of Lemis base
Luris and

strong base :
completely protonated in solution
acidic oxide reacts with water to form a solution of a Brynsted and >
-
molecular
compand
weal base partly protonated in solution
:

basic oxide reacts with water to form a solution of hydro xide vous

species left ionic compound react with acids give

>
CONJUGATE BASE : when and donates a
-
-
can to a salt and water
promo

CONJUGATE ACID species formed when the base accepts

amphoteric oxide reacts with both acds and bases (diagonal beryllium
-
polonium
proton
:
a

Brousted definitions allows an ion to be

-
an and
and applies to namaquacous solvents
log[tz0 ]
+

pH
-

= -

water is amphiprotic :
acts both as a
protondomor and
aceptor 2H2O H30
+
+ OH-Tautsionization PH
[Hz0 ]
+ -

=
10
auto molecules transfers to another molecule of the kind
protolysis : reaction in which one a
proton same

pkw
=
pH + pOH =
14
auto
protolysis constant : Kn =
[HzOTIIOH] =
1 .

10-24 (=At vity at +20 =

1)
WEAK ACIDS AND BASES
PM of a solution of weak and/base :

ALL THESE SPECIES ARE IN CEASELESS DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM

1) proton transfer equilibrium equation :

the molecular composition of a weak acid in water : the molecular composition of a weak bare in water : HA(aq)
+
H20(1)
= H30t(agl + A aql
2) calculate acidity constant Ka
a the base molecules ions

theaidmdeculerror
>
- or

-smallamomet Oandthe canoateanda stain

3) equilibrium
and the table
conjugate base set up
small amount of
O H ions that maintain Ka
>
- a
very 4) Subst.ep. concentrations into

autoprotolysis equilibrium autoprotolysis equilibrium proton-aceptive

the the
[Hg0 ] ( [OH-])
protadanatia
5) solve for +
a base x X = =
, x
of
Strength

3
6)
HA(aq)
+
H20(1) H30t(agl A aql Blag +
H20, =
HB (aa) + ↓ calculate
pH -logX
=
+
OH Tag

A
O 7) percentage deprotonated =
.

100 %
Ka 4) 7
pKa -logka acidity constant PKo -logky bacisity constant
= : =
:
same for bases but pOH.. ↑
[Bin ] .

the weaker the aid smaller

Ka-kigger pka
-
the weaker the ball >
-

smallerky >
-

bigger pkb
calculating Ka , pKa from pH :

the
stronger the acid base the weaker the conjugate base) and
·

[Hz0 ) PH
+
1) [HzO + ]
-

= 10 =
[A-]
expressing relative comi.base Ka K6 .
=
kn
pair a i d and its
Conjugate
re
aid-base strengths of an
[HAT IHAin] EAST
-
=

2) Ka
-

=
between the acids and their coup bases
seesaw relation
strengths of .

STRENGTHS OF OXOACIDS AND CARBOXYLIC AUDS

MOLECULAR STRUCTURE AND AUD STREN GTH
PH Of salt solution with aridic cation

oxoavid :

1) equilibrium ea with
electron affinity
->
its roll in electronegativity and bond polarity : .
cation only
·
the
greater number of 0 atoms 2) equilibrium table
the stronger the hydrogen band of HA with 120 molecule
, the
greater electronegativity of central atom
·
·

the more likely that the proton will be

transferred
3) calc . Ka =
kW/k
carboxylic
:

4) substitute equilibrium concentrations

the polar the H-A bend the
·

more - the more

readily HAloses its proton greater the
electronegativities of the groups +
attached to the
carboxyl group
Ka
to and solve for X
,
X =
[Hz0 ]
the HA arid
the
greater electronegativity of A -> the
stronger
·

5) find pH -log X
=

THE pH OF SALT SOLUTIONS same with basic arion but pot !

the pH et a salt polution depends on the relative alidity and basicity of itsious
they

-estimatingthePet solutia
on b
exert the

Brousted-Lowry
:
ious may act as aids or base amphiprotic salt
greatest pull o n the

>
- all cations that are the conjugate aids of weak bases produce acidic solution
electrous
sotheon ae
(AlT , Fest) produce acide 2) S-initial salt concentration
>
- small ,
highly changed metal catious that can ac t as Lemis aids in water sol . check ,

few anions containing hydrogen prod . acidic solution

SW-S Ka
, it validi
all arious that conjugate bases of weak aids produce basic solutions 3) pH z(pkan pkaz)
>
-
are = +

POLYPROTIC ACIDS AND BASES

calculating concentrations of all so th species in a
polyprotic
a
polyprotic acid can donate more than one
proton (H2SO4 , Hz(z) and solution
eq HzA H20 -HzO*
+
HzA- +

a polyprotic base can

accept more than
ene
proton (Cos Sog2, POp) , 1) do the table

I
=
H3 A H30THzA-
the pH of a
polyprotic solution :
4) Kan
-
a
a A] +
Ab
known
Kar Kaz* Kas- +30 +
protons donated succesively -
curdity constant
decreasing
--

3) solve for X
-
+ 2A ] but,
+
[
-

↳ u)x [Hz0 ]
= same steps
it's harder to
separate a
positive proton from a froutable table :
HA2 Hz0t A3-
negatively charged ion than from neutral indeule 5) find [HzA] =
a
-
X
X

↳
>
X0
+
HA2-
-

XXX
H2 A +
H20-H30
-

+
e92
AUTOPROTOLYSIS AND DH X -
XX + XX
steps but

reseAs ] =
S ance
ions of water and and concentration
H2A-H30t HAz
of hydronium
~Mee
to autoprotolysis sources table
a re - :

from
previous
-
X

X
X

X
O

X
=
pH dilute solution of a
strong and step
at a
very
X -

XX + xX

1) ea . 1 charge balance

1
concentration cations =
c .
anions

2) eq
. 2 material balance
all added solute must be accounted for

3) eq 3 .
auto
protolysis coust .
Kn to eq 2 .

4) quadratic equation :

[H30 ]2
+ +
+
(initial couc ) [H30 ]
. + kw = 0

same for bases

AQUAEOUS EQUILIBRIA
BUFFERS :

in pH did or base is added

solutions that resist
changes when a n
pH of a buffer solution
they act
by neutralizing the added and o r base >
-

stabilizing
-
the
pH ot an
aquaeous solution

identify the cong

are made
by mixing solution of solution base anion 1)
many are
a a weak and with a
containing its
carp
How do
they work ?
HA +
H201 Hz0 +:
they work byapplying Le Chatelier's principle to weal and equilibrium -A + 2) write reaction for the and
·

they contain
significant amounts of re a l and moleures HA adding a salt
containing NaA (the coup. base of the and HA + H20 = A + Hz0t
which react with the added base to neutralize it shifts the equilibrium to the left 3) substitute
-> this causes the pH into Ka
,
to be
they also contain
significant amounts A higher than the
·

of the
carp base pH of the and solution solve [H30 ]
+
.

for
that combine with the added and to ACID BUFFER
keep Hz0t constant :
a mixture of weak and and its salt

concentrations
4) pH = -

10g[Hz0t]
Buffers are often prepared with equimolar
of the
conjugate acid and base >
-

adequate supplies
H20 , y +
NH3 = NHyT + OH- :

of the 'source' and 'sink' stabilize the solution (in either direction) butters can also be made
by base
that can
with the
mixing a weak
strong aid-strong base tit .

soluble salt of its and

initial choice of buffer conjugate PH at different points of curre
:
pKa as close to
pH as
possible BASIC BUFFER :
a mixture of weak base and its salt

pKatlog[[bare initial 1) find amount of OH

HANDERSON HASSELBALCHEQUATION initially
pH =

my =
V[]]
Lavid] initial 2) find amount
Hz0t supplied
BUFFERING EFFECTIVENESS its effectiveness
flooses by titrant

buffering capacity is the amount of aid or base that can be added before the buffer looses the ability to resist large changes
in
pH 3) equation for ventralisation

buffering range is the pH range where the butter can be effective (pH range
is 1 1 unit of
pKa -
equal come of aid and base (large)
reaction

4) n10H) -

n(Hz0t) - Off
remaining
buffer is exhausted base/aid
of the re a l
conjugate
then most has
>
-
the been converted into its acd/base
5) find concentration OH oret the
>
-
it depends on the relative concentrations Of weak and and base
total volume
·

high capacity of stabilizing against the addition of and it weak base

present is at least 10 % of the real a d
6) pH =
pKw
-

pOH

TITRATIONS :

in aid-base titration solution of unknown concentration Citrant) is added to With know concentration
,
a
slowly a sol .

+
moles OH = moles Hz0 equivalence point equivalence point not at PH 7
- =

TITRATION CURVES :

a
plot of pH vs the amount of added titrant
the solution in the
prior to the
equivalence point ,

Hash is in excess so the

pH is closest to its pH

PH of equivalence point depends on the

pH of
the slow
the salt solution :
~
change
pH
sociate
in

a
mo

that
ea of neutral salt
·
.

p .
, pH =
7 as a
butter here

epetardisat P t

SOLUBILITY EQUILIBRIA
polyprotic and titrations :

between a solid salt and its dissolved iom in a saturated solution

dissociation reaction for an ionic solid :

MuXmIs) [nMM Tap + mX* endpoint >
-
equivalence point
lag) (depends on indicator/

[Mm ]n[Xh-ym
+
the solubility product /activity 1)
Ksp
stoldhemetu pen acal
=
of solid =
pure
reaction (
molar solubility is the number of moles of solute that will dissolve in a liter of solution

choosing indicator

+mis solubility example :

Se molar
molar In with
solubility = an
endpoint
1) write chemical equation Ksp 5 10- for chromium iodate in
=
water
.

m
close to the stoich
.

2) Ksp (oetts!) Cr3

+
write =...

Cr(10s)3 = + 3105- ksp =

[Cr ][103-3
+

point of the fitration

common ion effecti 3) molar ratios -
multiply [Cr3 ]
+

3
S

-
=

addition of a soluble salt that

4) calculate Ksp (by s [10 : ] =

contains one of the iews in the eX + Ca2 I-

(aFz Caz
- -

= + 2F
molar
insoluble' salt decreases the calc solubility initial

-Ksp
.

of CaF2 in 0 100M NaF :

Ksp =
[Ca2 ] [F-y2
+ =
S(0 1 +
solutitity lincomble'salt
.

of the change
.

eq wilib
. + S 0 1 + 25
.

>
effect of pH o n solubility
-
:

for insoluble ionic hydroxides ,

the
higher the pH the lower the solubility
for insoluble ionic compounds that contain arious of weak aids ,
the lower the
put the
higher the
solubility

PRECIPITATION

predicting precipitation :
selective precipitation
:

solution different cations

a
containing several can

Often be separated by addition of a

reagent

that will form an insoluble salt with i am

of the

but not the others

ex
does barium
fuoride form men 100 me

of 1 .
10-3 M Ba(NO3)2 is mixed with the solubility of a salt increases if the salt can form a complexion
200ml of 1 10-3 M
.

KT ? -

*
with one other species in the solution
BaFz = Bat
-

+
2F

E =
Qualitative

by selective
analysis

precipitation , complex formation

involves the
separation
and

and the
identification

control of
of cons

PH
Qsp < Ksp -
no
precipitation
 ELECTROCHEMISTRY Balancing redox reactions :

Oxidation
Is

Loosing
Reduction
Is
Gaining
electrochemical cell device in which electric current is produced by reaction
:
a an a spontaneous chemical or used to bring about a
homspontaneous one

galvanic cell is an electrochemical cell in which a spontaneo chemical reaction is med to generate an electric current (electrolytic cell
:
nonspontaneous reactions
↳ consists of two electrodes which make electrical contact with the contents
battery cells joined in series of the cell but not with each other
:
collection of galvanic
and an
electrolyte
↑
mically
conducting medium inside the cell

oxidation and reduction are kept separate in halt-cells typically an

aquaeou in an ionic conductor an electric current is carried by the movement of ins
sol . of an ionic compound
electric circuit with i n flow solution electrons are released at the
anodetravel through
the externalcircuit
consists of electron flow wire
through
through along
a
a
and end at the cathode where
up reaction
a n electrode allow transfer of electron >
-
oxidation takes place at the anode
,
reduction takes
place at the Cathode

a salt bridge contains a salt solution and keeps the charges balanced

rac taprovide
marian for the cell reaction
spontaneity :
it pd positive - spontaneously fo r prod ,
on

it p d is negative >
-
reverse reaction is spontaneou
Gibbs
relation between fre energy and the potential difference produced by the
. .

cell
potential is the maximum potential that can be
produced
-
Ecl electromotive force
:
also :
AGF = -
UFEP
on [F =
9 65.
.

10"(Cmole--1) -Faradays constant)

OXIDATION
↑
REDUCTION
CELL NOTATION potential

compan
:
standard cell (measured when a l l the species taking part are in their
cathode for Daniell states)
salt
bridge I & standard
cell
on

diagram
2u(s)) zn2 Call in Cags (c(s)
+
AG changes when chan -
eq is.

multiplied by a factor
,
1

puare
barrier/ E'cell does not !

Inert electrode :
a
hydrogen electrode constructed with
platinium
:

electrode/electrolytell electrolyte/electrode (H2(9)(H

+
-
in the same instead of phase barrier Pt (s) cagl amode
multiple electrolytes
:
schemat it are
phase
:
Comma

STANDARD POTENTIALS :
+
# cags (H2(9) /Pts1 cathode

standard cell potential :

Ecu =
E(cathode)
-

Ejanode) -
it En >O the cell reaction in spontaneous under standard condition

to provide numerical values for individual standard potentials (not only the everall difference) :
the more
peritive the potential , the
greater the
pulling power
election of

the reduction halt reaction

ISHE) standard electrode
+
2H (g) + 2e
-
-
Hz(a) E =
0
hydrogen
the
elec donating
the
more
negative potential ,
the
greater the tron power of
the oxidation half reaction

electrochemicalseve by their standard potentials list at

oxidizing and
reducing agents ordered by their strengt
e
from :
AG = -
RTMK = -
uFEim
H
predicting whether will dissolve did if reduction of the metal ion is easier than the reduction of
↓
:
in a n aids dissolve metall the

= example
:

I nk reactions)
equilibrium potential AGP
:
constant from standard cell allows to calculate eq .
constants for any reaction that can be expressed as two half calculate for reaction :

12 (s) +
2Brjao -
Br2( + 21
Taal
reactants consumed in working electrochemical cell the all
potential decrease until
as are a , also reaching zero
ox :
2Br +
-

22
-

>
BE Eo =
-1 09V
.

red :
12 >
-
21 + he - Eradi =
+0 54V
A 'dead' is
battery one in which the cell reaction has reached equilibrium
.

Emi Ejed F Ex
E-ma Eci-VMQ Ear-91
55v
=
= 0 54-1 09 =
-0 .

Even
.
=
.

Nernst equation : =

at 25 %: Ear
=

AG =
2 9 65 10"
.

.
.
.

(0 . 55) = 1 1 .
-
105

important application measuring :

concentration * Go > O + not sp in forward
.
direction

concentration cell :
a cell in which the two electrodes are identical except for their concentrations

it is possible to
get a spontaneous reaction electrolyte different electron flow less concentrated solution concentrated solution
long as the concentrations are -> more
:
as
,

anode :
Oxidation is the less coul .
"It will increase the ion concentration in the solution

cathode :
reduction is the more come .
- reduces the ion concentration + erminal of battery :
anode (- :
cathode
catieu attracted to cathode ,
arious to anode
electrolytic cell :
use electrical
energy to overcome the
energy barrier and cause a
non-sportaneous reaction (electrolysis in the process electrons from the cathode
cation pick up
and are reduced
,
to drive a reaction in a
nonspontaneous direction , the external power supply must generate arious release electrons to the anode and
are oxidized
a
potential difference greater than the
p d . . that would be
produced by the reverse reaction

overpotential :
the additional potential difference

Faraday's law :
the amount of product formed or reactant consumed by an electric current is stoich. equivalent to the amount of electrons supplied

amount of electrons supplied by a

given charge :
n = Hinding, man ot ...
produced in an
electrolytic cl m = n M

compounds (liquid state) graphite cations anious oxidized at anode to

electrolysis of must be molten electrodes reduced at cathode to the metal element metal element
:

pure , , are ,
non

corrosion spontaneous Oxidation of by chemicals in the environment

electroplating
:
:
a metal
the
electrolytic deposition of a thin film of metal on a n object

primary cell :
galvanic cell with reactants sealed in at manufacture -
cannot be recharged

full cell is like a

primary cell but reactants are continuously supplied , dry cell (media players ,
remotes , flashlight
alkative cell silver cell
, are primary cell that provide more stable , longer lasting potential

secondary cell galvanic cell that must be charged before it is used

e rechargable
:

lead-aid cell , nickel-metal hydride cell ,

reverses the spontaneds cell reaction lithium-ion cell , sodium-sulfur cell

an external source of electricity and creates

a nonequilitmm mixture of reactants

 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
H- C
tetrahedral
= C
- Hethyue
Carbon
bonding :
mainly covalent bands ,
most stable then has H levatent bands ,
CFC CFC are more reactive than Ge (2 single I double is trigonal planar , I double or 1 triple is linear

carbon use sp sp"

,
and sp hybridization (sp :
25 bands and 22 bond , sp2 :
1 ,
30
FUNCTIO
T

HYDROCARBONS :
+
carbon
hydrogen
ALKANE
a
·insoluble inwater
(nopdarbands
to attract wate
el

ALKENE
ALkYNE
ALKYL HALIDE -
X
·
ALIPHATIC :
does not

ALCOHOL -
OH different types distinguished by type at carbon banding (chain
or
rings (
↳
cycloalhaves haming allaves :

ETHER-O-
-
saturated >
-
allaves (no multiple carbon-carbon banding
ALDEHYDE -
CHO Straight-drains : -
a re (name is based on
longest chair
the
unsaturated -
alkenes allynel (one bands
RETONE TOAID-COOH
double / functional group ylt
-
,
triple hydrocarben side chain

numberpositi
any
or more or : -

ALIPHATIC HYDROCARBONC :
ning
:
-
prefixes di
cyclo-

ESTER-CO ALKANES :
CuHzn + 2 >
-

alphabetical order !

single bands that lie in a tetrahedral arrangement with sp3 hybridization haming alleves/alkynes :

AMIDE-CO-N
parattins very unreactive branched unbranched doubde bouds -ene triple bonds :
yue
-
:
or ,
, ,

the of given by the lowest numbered carbon in the band

C-C bonds allow
because of similar
electronegativities position the multiple band
single rotation around bonds
it more mutiple bends prefix >
-
CH2
=
CH-CH2-CH =
CHL 1 4-pentadiene
properties :

I stronger when unbranched

, ,

(hydrophobic interactions)
>
nonpolar London force
-

,
dominant reaction between molecules is the

ISOMERS different compounds with the same molecular formula

long unbranded chains higher melting boiling points enthalpres of vaporisation
..
-
:
, , ,
Stwo molecules
differing by rotation have different confirmations
-
mol with branched chains hare weaker intermolecular forces than their unbranched isomers
they have the mokular
. -

same
forma and structural f . but
diff properties
.

ALKENES C C
Culzn each carben atom atems)
=
in
Stereoisomers (same connectivity
:
different arrangement
-

of
e
ethene ethylene ,

carbon-carbon double bonds are more reactive than

single
bed is
sp mybrydined , 1, 3 2 band
-

geometrical isomers Catoms have different arrangement on either side of the

(less closely packed ro t a double boud abers/below ring)

cis-sauce
a
or

nevermetingpoints
due to

thanaluave of similar
n
molar m ar

mem
ALKYNES CuHz-m exeyue
-
acctugene
more reactive than allewes Ecule
·
sine a r

ame
REACTIONS OF HYDROCARBONS all hydrocarbam undergo combustion

allave reactions reactions

alkene allyhe
: :
,

-additionaddin
substitution H with a
modeleacross
replacing a
halogen
, the multipl
-

by addition
-

initiated of in form of
energy

polyclicaromaticnyd contaia
·

stationcyome
n
Later medicat sident a concentra s h owe

AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS :

reations : -

substitution
contain benzene ring structure /resonance hybrid of two structures) men benzene is not a base name it is called a
phenyl group CgH5 Creplacing group (
, H with another atom or

HALOALKANES (ALKYL HALIDES) ALCOHOLS :

is polar ethand :
CH3CHcOH
&

allaves with at least one hydrogen replaced with a

halogen atom
the
hydroxyl group is an -
OH group covalently banded to a carbon atom

highly toxic an alcond is an organic compound that contains a

hydroxyl group not connected to a benzene
rig
they undergo muchophilic
carbon-halogen bouds are polar substitution classes of alcouds accord. to the num . of organic groups attached :

ine in
naming changing halogen to O
: - -

primary :
RCH2-OH Secondary :
RICH-OH retrary :
RyC-OH

ETHERS
:

R
naming
:

#OHCOT
an organic compound of form R-O-R with as an
allyl group replace
-
e of
parent hydrocarbon with :
-ob
,

the location of the the Catom

more volatile than alcohol of the same molar mass because the molecules hydroxyl group is numbering
in results in
do not form hydrogen bonds
, a
way which the lowest number of the -OH
well soluble because
they form less
hydrogen bands to water
molecules when-OH is a substituent it is called "hydroxy"
useful solvents flammable
·

ALDEHYDES naming identifying the

(counting group
:
AND KETONES parent in -
CHO
CARBOXYLIC ALIDS :

"H
they certain C 0 :

carbonyl
=
a
group
functional group taraldehydes
LimCa
their
:
is the
carboxyl group
R-C/O the
-

O
= e to al
aldehyde changing
-

: R -c ketone
-
:

they are weak aids of

form R-COOH
H R
for ketones

naming
:
CHCHO-formaldehydel One
oic acid
and
numbering the chain in

replacing-e at parent hydrocarbon

: -

the R groups aliphatic

may be either aromatic the order that
givel the
or
group
the lowest number

AMINES ,
AMINO ACIDS AMIDES
,
ESTERS :

esterification
↑
an amine is a
compound with a
formula derived from NH3 the
product of reaction between a
carboxylic di d and an aloled
the functional group of amives is -
NH2 : the amino
group
the formation is a condensation reaction
classification naming
:
:

where two molecules combine to form a

larger one

primary RNH2 secondary RzNH tetriary R3N changing the -and of the alcone :
ye
-

: : :

and the smaller eliminated

(H2O) is
in each case the Natom is Sp hybridized
R-CO-OR
changing the -oicacd : -
Date

reactions :

weak bases react with to

aids
strong form ammonium salts

with and in condensation reaction to form amides

carboxylic a

& RLOOH + HNHR' = RCONHR' + H20) R-(c0) -

NHR

an amino and is a
carboxylic acid that contains

and
an animo group a carbo
Xyl group
it has both a basic
group (-NH2) and audic (-COOH)

N
naming
:
specifying groups attached to alphabetically
I
suffixi -
amine (two groups
:
diamine
-

NH2 is called :
Amino -
when it is a substituent