1) What is Multiplexing and Explain different types of

Multiplexing?
Multiplexing is the process of combining multiple signals into one
signal, over a shared medium. If analog signals are multiplexed,
it is Analog Multiplexing and if digital signals are multiplexed,
that process is Digital Multiplexing.

The process of multiplexing divides a communication channel

into several number of logical channels, allotting each one for a
different message signal or a data stream to be transferred. The
device that does multiplexing can be simply called as a MUX
while the one that reverses the process which is demultiplexing,
is called as DEMUX.

Types of Multiplexers

There are mainly two types of multiplexers,

namely analog and digital. They are further divided
into FDM, WDM, and TDM.

1)Analog Multiplexing

The analog multiplexing techniques involve signals which are

analog in nature. The analog signals are multiplexed according
to their frequency (FDM) or wavelength (WDM).

Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

In analog multiplexing, the most used technique is Frequency

Division Multiplexing FDM. This technique uses various
frequencies to combine streams of data, for sending them on a
communication medium, as a single signal.

Example: A traditional television transmitter, which sends a

number of channels through a single cable, uses FDM.
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

Wavelength Division Multiplexing is an analog technique, in

which many data streams of different wavelengths are
transmitted in the light spectrum. If the wavelength increases,
the frequency of the signal decreases.

Example: Optical fibre Communications use the WDM

technique, to merge different wavelengths into a single light for
the communication.

2)Digital Multiplexing

The term digital represents the discrete bits of information.

Hence the available data is in the form of frames or packets,
which are discrete.

Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

In TDM, the time frame is divided into slots. This technique is

used to transmit a signal over a single communication channel,
with allotting one slot for each message. Of all the types of TDM,
the main ones are Synchronous and Asynchronous TDM.

Synchronous TDM

In Synchronous TDM, the input is connected to a frame. If there

are ‘n’ number of connections, then the frame is divided into ‘n’
time slots. One slot is allocated for each input line. In this
technique, the sampling rate is common to all signals and hence
same clock input is given. The mux allocates the same slot to
each device at all times.

Asynchronous TDM

In Asynchronous TDM, the sampling rate is different for each of

the signals and the clock signal is also not in common. If the
allotted device, for a time-slot, transmits nothing and sits idle,
then that slot is allotted to another device, unlike synchronous.
2) What is networking? Explain the architecture of
networking
Computer Network Architecture is defined as the physical and
logical design of the software, hardware, protocols, and media
of the transmission of data. Simply we can say that how
computers are organized and how tasks are allocated to the
computer.

The two types of network architectures are used:\

o Peer-To-Peer network
o Client/Server network

Peer-To-Peer network

o Peer-To-Peer network is a network in which all the

computers are linked together with equal privilege and
responsibilities for processing the data.
o Peer-To-Peer network is useful for small environments,
usually up to 10 computers.
o Special permissions are assigned to each computer for
sharing the resources, but this can lead to a problem if the
computer with the resource is down.

Advantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:

o It is less costly as it does not contain any dedicated server.
o If one computer stops working but, other computers will
not stop working.

Disadvantages Of Peer-To-Peer Network:

o In the case of Peer-To-Peer network, it does not contain the

centralized system . Therefore, it cannot back up the data
as the data is different in different locations.
o It has a security issue as the device is managed itself.
Client/Server Network

o Client/Server network is a network model designed for the

end users called clients, to access the resources such as
songs, video, etc. from a central computer known as Server.
o The central controller is known as a server while all other
computers in the network are called clients.
o A server performs all the major operations such as security
and network management.
o A server is responsible for managing all the resources such
as files, directories, printer, etc.
o All the clients communicate with each other through a
server. For example, if client1 wants to send some data to
client 2, then it first sends the request to the server for the
permission. The server sends the response to the client 1
to initiate its communication with the client 2.

Advantages Of Client/Server network:

o A Client/Server network contains the centralized system.
Therefore we can back up the data easily.
o A Client/Server network has a dedicated server that
improves the overall performance of the whole system.
o Security is better in Client/Server network as a single
server administers the shared resources.
o It also increases the speed of the sharing resources.

Disadvantages Of Client/Server network:

o Client/Server network is expensive as it requires the server
with large memory.
o A server has a Network Operating System(NOS) to provide
the resources to the clients, but the cost of NOS is very
high.
o It requires a dedicated network administrator to manage all
the resources.
o Transmission media
 3) Transmission media
Transmission media is a communication channel that carries the
information from the sender to the receiver. Data is transmitted
through the electromagnetic signals.

o The main functionality of the transmission media is to carry

the information in the form of bits through LAN(Local Area
Network).
o It is a physical path between transmitter and receiver in
data communication.
o In a copper-based network, the bits in the form of electrical
signals.
o In OSI(Open System Interconnection) phase, transmission
media supports the Layer 1. Therefore, it is considered to
be as a Layer 1 component.
o The electrical signals can be sent through the copper wire,
fibre optics, atmosphere, water, and vacuum.
o Transmission media is of two types are wired media and
wireless media. In wired media, medium characteristics are
more important whereas, in wireless media, signal
characteristics are more important.
o The transmission media is available in the lowest layer of
the OSI reference model, i.e., Physical layer.

Some factors need to designing the transmission media:

o Bandwidth: All the factors are remaining constant, the
greater the bandwidth of a medium, the higher the data
transmission rate of a signal.
o Transmission impairment: When the received signal is
not identical to the transmitted one due to the transmission
impairment. The quality of the signals will get destroyed
due to transmission impairment.
o Interference: An interference is defined as the process of
disrupting a signal when it travels over a communication
medium on the addition of some unwanted signal.
4) Explain Active and Passive attacks in network.
Active attacks

In active attacks, the attacker intercepts the connection and

efforts to modify the message's content. It is dangerous for
integrity and availability of the message. Active attacks involve
Masquerade, Modification of message, Repudiation, Replay, and
Denial of service. The system resources can be changed due to
active attacks. So, the damage done with active attacks can be
harmful to the system and its resources.

In active attacks, the victim gets notified about the attack.

Active attacks can be prevented by using some techniques. We
can try the below-listed measures to prevent these attacks –

o Use of one-time password help in the authentication of the

transactions between two parties.
o There could be a generation of the random session key that
will be valid for a single transaction. It should prevent the
malicious user from retransmitting the actual information
once the session ends.

Passive attacks

In passive attacks, the attacker observes the messages, then

copy and save them and can use it for malicious purposes. The
attacker does not try to change the information or content
he/she gatheredIt is difficult to detect as there is no alteration
in the message. Passive attacks can be prevented by using some
encryption techniques. We can try the below-listed measures to
prevent these attacks -

o We should avoid posting sensitive information or personal

information online. Attackers can use this information to
hack your network.
o We should use the encryption method for the messages and
make the messages unreadable for any unintended
intruder.
5) Explain Connection oriented and connectionless
services in Network layer
Connection-Oriented Service

A connection-oriented service is a network service that was

designed and developed after the telephone system. A
connection-oriented service is used to create an end to end
connection between the sender and the receiver before
transmitting the data over the same or different networks. In
connection-oriented service, packets are transmitted to the
receiver in the same order the sender has sent them. It uses a
handshake method that creates a connection between the user
and sender for transmitting the data over the network. Hence it
is also known as a reliable network service.

Suppose, a sender wants to send data to the receiver. Then,

first, the sender sends a request packet to a receiver in the form
of an SYN packet. After that, the receiver responds to the
sender's request with an (SYN-ACK) signal/packets. That
represents the confirmation is received by the receiver to start
the communication between the sender and the receiver. Now a
sender can send the message or data to the receiver.

Connectionless Service

A connection is similar to a postal system, in which each letter

takes along different route paths from the source to the
destination address. Connectionless service is used in the
network system to transfer data from one end to another end
without creating any connection. So it does not require
establishing a connection before sending the data from the
sender to the receiver. It is not a reliable network service
because it does not guarantee the transfer of data packets to the
receiver, and data packets can be received in any order to the
receiver. Therefore we can say that the data packet does not
follow a defined path. In connectionless service, the
transmitted data packet is not received by the receiver due to
network congestion, and the data may be lost.
6)Describe stop and wait and sliding window protocol in
Data Link layer.
Both Stop and Wait protocol and Sliding Window protocol are
the techniques to the solution of flow control handling. The
main difference between Stop-and-wait protocol and Sliding
window protocol is that in Stop-and-Wait Protocol.
Stop-and-Wait Protocol:
Stop-and-Wait is a simple protocol used for transmitting data
between two devices over a communication channel. In this
protocol, the sender sends a packet of data to the receiver
and then waits for the receiver to acknowledge the packet
before sending the next packet. The receiver sends an
acknowledgement to the sender indicating that the packet has
been received and is error-free.
Features :
• The sender transmits one packet at a time and waits
for an acknowledgement before sending the next
packet.
• The receiver sends an acknowledgement for each
packet received, indicating whether it is a duplicate or
a new packet.
• It is a simple and easy-to-implement protocol.
• It is ideal for situations where the transmission rate is
low or the network is reliable.
Sliding Window Protocol:
The Sliding Window protocol is a more efficient protocol for
data transmission than the Stop-and-Wait protocol. It uses a
window size to control the number of packets that can be
transmitted without acknowledgement. The sender can
transmit multiple packets within the window size before
waiting for an acknowledgement from the receiver.
Features:
• The sender can transmit multiple packets without
waiting for an acknowledgement for each packet.
• The receiver sends a cumulative acknowledgement for
a sequence of packets, indicating the last correctly
received packet..
7)What are the transport layer primitves ? Illustrate the
TCP in detail.
o The transport layer is a 4th layer from the top.
o The main role of the transport layer is to provide the
communication services directly to the application
processes running on different hosts.
o The transport layer provides a logical communication
between application processes running on different hosts.
Although the application processes on different hosts are
not physically connected, application processes use the
logical communication provided by the transport layer to
send the messages to each other.
o The transport layer protocols are implemented in the end
systems but not in the network routers.
o A computer network provides more than one protocol to the
network applications. For example, TCP and UDP are two
transport layer protocols that provide a different set of
services to the network layer.
o All transport layer protocols provide
multiplexing/demultiplexing service. It also provides other
services such as reliable data transfer, bandwidth
guarantees, and delay guarantees.

Transport Service Primitives

• To see how these primitives might be used, consider an
application with a server and a number of remote clients. To
start with, the server executes a LISTEN primitive, typically by
calling a library procedure that makes a system call to block
the server until a client turns up. When a client wants to talk to
the server, it executes a CONNECT primitive. The transport
entity carries out this primitive by blocking the caller and
sending a packet to the server. Encapsulated in the payload of
this packet is a transport layer message for the server's
transport entity.
 • Illustrate the TCP in detail.
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is one of the main
protocols of the Internet protocol suite. It lies between the
Application and Network Layers which are used in providing
reliable delivery services.
In this article, we will discuss about Transmission control
protocol in detail. We will also discuss IP, the Difference between
TCP and IP.
What is Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)?
Transmission Control Protocol is a connection-oriented protocol
for communications that helps in the exchange of messages
between different devices over a network. The Internet Protocol
(IP), which establishes the technique for sending data packets
between computers, works with TCP.
Features of TCP/IP
• Segment Numbering System: TCP keeps track of
the segments being transmitted, Connection
Oriented: It means sender and receiver are connected
to each other till the completion of the process. The
order of the data is maintained,
• Full Duplex: In TCP data can be transmitted from
receiver to the sender or vice – versa at the same time
• Flow Control: Flow control limits the rate at which a
sender transfers data. This is done to ensure reliable
delivery
• Error Control: TCP implements an error control
mechanism for reliable data transferCongestion
Control: TCP takes into account the level of
congestion in the network. Congestion level is
determined by the amount of data sent by a sender.
Advantages of TCP
• It is a reliable protocol.
• It provides an error-checking mechanism as well as
one for recovery.
• It gives flow control.
• It makes sure that the data reaches the proper
destination in the exact order that it was sent.
• It Open Protocol, not owned by any organization or
individual.
8) Distance Vector Algorithm
A router transmits its distance vector to each of its neighbors
in a routing packet.Each router receives and saves the most
recently received distance vector from each of its neighbors.
A router recalculates its distance vector when:It receives a
distance vector from a neighbor containing different
information than before.It discovers that a link to a neighbor
has gone down.
Distributed: It is distributed in that each node receives
information from one or more of its directly attached neighbors,
performs calculation and then distributes the result back to its
neighbors.

Iterative: It is iterative in that its process continues until no

more information is available to be exchanged between
neighbors.

Asynchronous: It does not require that all of its nodes operate

in the lock step with each other.

o The Distance vector algorithm is a dynamic algorithm.

o It is mainly used in ARPANET, and RIP.
o Each router maintains a distance table known as Vector.

Three Keys
Knowledge about the whole network: Each router shares its
knowledge through the entire network. The Router sends its
collected knowledge about the network to its neighbors.
Routing only to neighbors: The router sends its knowledge
about the network to only those routers which have direct links.
The router sends whatever it has about the network through the
ports. The information is received by the router and uses the
information to update its own routing table.

Information sharing at regular intervals: Within 30

seconds, the router sends the information to the neighboring
routers.
1). Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM):

In this, a number of signals are transmitted at the same

time, and each source transfers its signals in the allotted
frequency range. There is a suitable frequency gap between
the 2 adjacent signals to avoid over-lapping. Since the
signals are transmitted in the allotted frequencies so this
decreases the probability of collision. The frequency
spectrum is divided into several logical channels, in which
every user feels that they possess a particular bandwidth. It
is used in radio and TV transmission. Therefore to avoid
interference between two successive channels Guard
bands are used.

1. In the first generation of mobile phones, FDM was

used.
2. The use of FDM in television broadcasting
3. FDM is used to broadcast FM and AM radio frequencies.

2). Time Division Multiplexing (TDM):

This happens when the data transmission rate of media is

greater than that of the source, and each signal is allotted a
definite amount of time. These slots are so small that all
transmissions appear to be parallel. In frequency division
multiplexing all the signals operate at the same time with
different frequencies, but in time-division multiplexing, all the
signals operate with the same frequency at different times.
Efficient Use of Bandwidth: FDM allows multiple signals to
be transmitted over a single communication channel, which
can lead to more efficient use of available bandwidth.
No Time Synchronization Required: FDM does not require
precise time synchronization between the transmitting and
receiving devices, making it easier to implement.
Low Implementation Cost: FDM is a relatively simple
technique that does not require sophisticated hardware or
software, making it less expensive to implement.
10) Explain Different Switching Techniques
Switching techniques

In large networks, there can be multiple paths from sender to

receiver. The switching technique will decide the best route for
data transmission. Switching technique is used to connect the
systems for making one-to-one communication.

Circuit Switching Circuit switching is a switching technique that

establishes a dedicated path between sender and receiver.In the
Circuit Switching Technique, once the connection is established
then the dedicated path will remain to exist until the connection
is terminated.Circuit switching in a network operates in a similar
way as the telephone works.A complete end-to-end path must
exist before the communication takes place.

Message Switching Message Switching is a switching

technique in which a message is transferred as a complete unit
and routed through intermediate nodes at which it is stored and
forwarded.In Message Switching technique, there is no
establishment of a dedicated path between the sender and
receiver.The destination address is appended to the message.
Message Switching provides a dynamic routing as the message
is routed through the intermediate nodes based on the
information available in the message.Message switches are
programmed in such a way so that they can provide the most
efficient routes.

Packet Switching The packet switching is a switching

technique in which the message is sent in one go, but it is divided
into smaller pieces, and they are sent individually.The message
splits into smaller pieces known as packets and packets are
given a unique number to identify their order at the receiving
end.Every packet contains some information in its headers such
as source address, destination address and sequence
number.Packets will travel across the network, taking the
shortest path as possible.All the packets are reassembled at the
receiving end in correct order.
11) Explain different routing algorithms in data link
Layer.
Routing is the process of establishing the routes that data
packets must follow to reach the destination. In this process, a
routing table is created which contains information regarding
routes that data packets follow.

Adaptive Routing algorithm

o An adaptive routing algorithm is also known as dynamic

routing algorithm.
o This algorithm makes the routing decisions based on the
topology and network traffic.

Centralized algorithm: It is also known as global routing

algorithm as it computes the least-cost path between source and
destination by using complete and global knowledge about the
network.

Isolation algorithm: It is an algorithm that obtains the routing

information by using local information rather than gathering
information from other nodes.

Distributed algorithm: It is also known as decentralized

algorithm as it computes the least-cost path between source and
destination in an iterative and distributed manner.

Non-Adaptive Routing algorithm

o Non Adaptive routing algorithm is also known as a static

routing algorithm.
o Non Adaptive routing algorithms do not take the routing
decision based on the network topology or network traffic.

Flooding: In case of flooding, every incoming packet is sent to

all the outgoing links except the one from it has been reached.

Random walks: In case of random walks, a packet sent by

the node to one of its neighbors randomly.
12) User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
is a Transport Layer protocol. UDP is a part of the Internet
Protocol suite, referred to as UDP/IP suite. Unlike TCP, it is
an unreliable and connectionless protocol. So, there is no
need to establish a connection before data transfer. The UDP
helps to establish low-latency and loss-tolerating connections
over the network. The UDP enables process-to-process
communication.
What is User Datagram Protocol?
Though Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is the dominant
transport layer protocol used with most of the Internet services;
provides assured delivery, reliability, and much more but all
these services cost us additional overhead and latency. Here,
UDP comes into the picture. For real-time services like
computer gaming, voice or video communication, and live
conferences; we need UDP. Since high performance is needed,
UDP permits packets to be dropped instead of processing
delayed packets. There is no error checking in UDP, so it also
saves bandwidth.

Applications of UDP
-----Used for simple request-response communication when
the size of data is less and hence there is lesser concern about
flow and error control.
-----It is a suitable protocol for multicasting as UDP supports
packet switching.
-UDP is used for some routing update protocols like
RIP(Routing Information Protocol).
-----UDP is widely used in online gaming, where low latency
and high-speed communication is essential for a good gaming
experience. Game servers often send small, frequent packets
of data to clients, and UDP is well suited for this type of
communication as it is fast and lightweight.
-----Streaming media applications, such as IPTV, online radio,
and video conferencing, use UDP to transmit real-time audio
and video data. The loss of some packets can be tolerated in
these applications, as the data is continuously flowing and
does not require retransmission.
13) Authentication
is the process of verifying the identity of a user or information.
User authentication is the process of verifying the identity of a
user when that user logs in to a computer system.

1. Single-Factor authentication: – This was the first

method of security that was developed. On this authentication
system, the user has to enter the username and the password
to confirm whether that user is logging in or not. Now if the
username or password is wrong, then the user will not be
allowed to log in or access the system.
Advantage of the Single-Factor Authentication System: –
-It is a very simple to use and straightforward system.
-it is not at all costly.
-The user does not need any huge technical skills.

2. Two-factor Authentication: – In this authentication

system, the user has to give a username, password, and other
information. There are various types of authentication systems
that are used by the user for securing the system. Some of
them are: – wireless tokens and virtual tokens. OTP and more.
Advantages of the Two-Factor Authentication
-The Two-Factor Authentication System provides better
security than the Single-factor Authentication system.
-Two-Factor Authentication prevents the loss of trust.

3. Multi-Factor authentication system,: – In this type of

authentication, more than one factor of authentication is
needed. This gives better security to the user. Any type of
keylogger or phishing attack will not be possible in a Multi-
Factor Authentication system. This assures the user, that the
information will not get stolen from them.
The advantage of the Multi-Factor Authentication System are:
–
• No risk of security.
• No information could get stolen.
• No risk of any key-logger activity.
14) Error Detection
When data is transmitted from one device to another device,
the system does not guarantee whether the data received by
the device is identical to the data transmitted by another
device. An Error is a situation when the message received at
the receiver end is not identical to the message
transmitted.Errors in the received frames are detected by If the
counter-check at receiver’ end fails, the bits are considered
corrupted.

Parity Check One extra bit is sent along with the original bits
to make number of 1s either even in case of even parity, or odd
in case of odd parity.

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) CRC is a different approach

to detect if the received frame contains valid data. This
technique involves binary division of the data bits being sent.

• Error Correction

Error Correction codes are used to detect and correct the errors
when data is transmitted from the sender to the receiver.In the
digital world, error correction can be done in two ways:

Backward Error Correction When the receiver detects an

error in the data received, it requests back the sender to
retransmit the data unit.

Forward Error Correction When the receiver detects some

error in the data received, it executes error-correcting code,
which helps it to auto-recover and to correct some kinds of
errors.

The first one, Backward Error Correction, is simple and can only
be efficiently used where retransmitting is not expensive. For
example, fiber optics. But in case of wireless transmission
retransmitting may cost too much. In the latter case, Forward
Error Correction is used.
15) Explain OSI reference model in detail with neat
diagram

OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection, where open

stands to say non-proprietary. It is a 7-layer architecture with
each layer having specific functionality to perform. All these 7
layers work collaboratively to transmit the data from one person
to another across the globe. The OSI reference model was
developed by ISO – ‘International Organization for
Standardization‘, in the year 1984.

The OSI model provides a theoretical foundation for

understanding network communication. However, it is
usually not directly implemented in its entirety in real-
world networking hardware or software. Instead, specific
protocols and technologies are often designed based on the
principles outlined in the OSI model to facilitate efficient data
transmission and networking operations.

Layer 1) Physical Layer –

The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical
layer. It is responsible for the actual physical connection
between the devices. The physical layer contains information in
the form of bits. It is responsible for transmitting individual bits
from one node to the next. When receiving data, this layer will
get the signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s and send
them to the Data Link layer, which will put the frame back
together.
Layer 2) Data Link Layer (DLL)
The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery
of the message. The main function of this layer is to make sure
data transfer is error-free from one node to another, over the
physical layer. When a packet arrives in a network, it is the
responsibility of the DLL to transmit it to the Host using its MAC
address. 1)Logical Link Control (LLC)2)Media Access Control
(MAC)

Layer 3) Network Layer –

The network layer works for the transmission of data from one
host to the other located in different networks. It also takes
care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to
transmit the packet, from the number of routes available. The
sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by
the network layer.
Layer 4) Transport Layer
The transport layer provides services to the application layer
and takes services from the network layer. The data in the
transport layer is referred to as Segments. It is responsible for
the end-to-end delivery of the complete message. The transport
layer also provides the acknowledgment of the successful data
transmission and re-transmits the data if an error is found.
.
Layer 5) Session Layer –
This layer is responsible for the establishment of connection,
maintenance of sessions, and authentication, and also ensures
security.
Layer 6) Presentation Layer –
The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The
data from the application layer is extracted here and
manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the
network.
Layer 7) Application Layer –
At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we
find the Application layer which is implemented by the network
applications. These applications produce the data to be
transferred over the network. This layer also serves as a window
for the application services to access the network and for
displaying the received information to the user.

Advantages of OSI Model

The OSI Model defines the communication of a computing
system into 7 different layers. Its advantages include:
• It divides network communication into 7 layers which
makes it easier to understand and troubleshoot.
• It standardizes network communications, as each layer
has fixed functions and protocols.
• Diagnosing network problems is easier with the OSI
model.
• It is easier to improve with advancements as each
layer can get updates separately.