I.

FORMULAS FROM ALGEBRA

Special Products
1. (𝑥 + 𝑎)(𝑥 + 𝑏) = 𝑥 + (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑥 + 𝑎𝑏
2. (𝑎 + 𝑏) = 𝑎 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏
3. (𝑎 − 𝑏) = 𝑎 − 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏
4. (𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑎 + 𝑏) = 𝑎 − 𝑏
5. (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦)(𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦) = 𝑎𝑐𝑥 + (𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑐)𝑥𝑦 + 𝑏𝑑𝑦
6. (𝑎 + 𝑏) = 𝑎 + 3𝑎 𝑏 + 3𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏
7. (𝑎 − 𝑏) = 𝑎 − 3𝑎 𝑏 + 3𝑎𝑏 − 𝑏

Factoring Polynomials
1. 𝑥 + (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑥 + 𝑎𝑏 = (𝑥 + 𝑎)(𝑥 + 𝑏)
2. 𝑎 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)
3. 𝑎 − 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 = (𝑎 − 𝑏)
4. 𝑎 − 𝑏 = (𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑎 + 𝑏)
5. 𝑎𝑐𝑥 + (𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑐)𝑥𝑦 + 𝑏𝑑𝑦 = (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦)(𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦)
6. 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑎𝑧 = 𝑎(𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧)
7. 𝑎 + 3𝑎 𝑏 + 3𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)
8. 𝑎 − 3𝑎 𝑏 + 3𝑎𝑏 − 𝑏 = (𝑎 − 𝑏)

Rules of Exponent
1. Multiplication 𝑎 𝑎 =𝑎
2. Division: =𝑎
3. Power of a Quotient: =
4. Power of a Product: (𝑎𝑏) = 𝑎 𝑏
5. Power of a Power: (𝑎 ) = 𝑎
6. Negative Exponent: 𝑎 =
7. Zero as an Exponent: 𝑎 =1
⁄
8. Rational Exponent: 𝑎 = √𝑎 or 𝑎 = √𝑎 = √𝑎

Radicals
1. √𝑎 × √𝑏 = √𝑎𝑏
√
2. =
√

Quadratic Formula
If a ≠ 0, the solutions of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 are given by
−𝑏 ± √𝑏 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥=
2𝑎

Inequalities
1. If a < b, and b < c, then a < c
2. If a < b, then a + c < b + c
3. If a < b, then a – c < b – c
4. If a < b, and c > 0, then ac < bc
5. If a < b, and c < 0, then ac > bc
6. If b > 0, ∠x∠ < b is equivalent to –b < x < b
7. If b > 0, ∠x∠ > b is equivalent to x > b or x < -b

Logarithms
1. 𝑦 = log 𝑥 if and only if 𝑥 = 𝑏
2. log 1 = 0
3. log 𝑏 = 1
4. log 𝑢𝑣 = log 𝑢 + log 𝑣
5. log = log 𝑢 − log 𝑣
6. log 𝑢 = 𝑛 log 𝑢
7. ln 𝑥 = log 𝑥
Formulas from Analytic Geometry
Distance Formula: The distance between two points P1(x1, y1) and P2(x2, y2) is
|𝑃 𝑃 | = (𝑥 − 𝑥 ) + (𝑦 − 𝑦 )

Mid-point Formula: If M(x,y) is the midpoint of the line segment from P1(x1, y1) and P2(x2, y2)
𝑥= and 𝑦=

Equation of a Circle: The circle with center at (h, k) and radius r has an equation
(𝑥 − ℎ) + (𝑦 − 𝑘) = 𝑟

Slope of a Line: If P1(x1, y1) and P2(x2, y2) are any two distinct points on a non-vertical line, then
the slope of the line is m, given by
𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝛥𝑦 𝑦 − 𝑦
𝑚= = =
𝑟𝑢𝑛 𝛥𝑥 𝑥 − 𝑥
Equation of a Line:
The point-slope form of a line having a slope m and passing through a point P (x1, y1) is:
𝑦 − 𝑦 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥 )

Slope-intercept form of a line having slope m and y-intercept b is:

𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏

The general 1st degree equation is

𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶 = 0

Formulas from Trigonometry

Let 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 represent the sides of a triangle, and ∠𝐴, ∠𝐵 and ∠𝐶 be the measures of the angles
opposite 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 respectively.

Laws of Sine: = =

Law of Cosine: 𝑐 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 − 2𝑎𝑏 cos 𝐶 or 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐶 = or

𝐶 = cos

Formula for For Right Triangles

sin 𝜃 = cos 𝜃 = tan 𝜃 =

csc 𝜃 = sec 𝜃 = cot 𝜃 =

Formulas from Trigonometric Identities

Pythagorean Identities Reciprocal Identities
sin 𝜃 = csc 𝜃 =
sin 𝜃 + cos 𝜃 = 1
1 + tan 𝜃 = sec 𝜃 cos 𝜃 = sec 𝜃 =
1 + cot 𝜃 = csc 𝜃 tan 𝜃 = cot 𝜃 =
Sum and Difference Formulas Quotient Identities
sin(𝐴 ± 𝐵) = sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 ± cos 𝐴 sin 𝐵 sin 𝜃
cos(𝐴 ± 𝐵) = sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 ∓ cos 𝐴 sin 𝐵 tan 𝜃 =
cos 𝜃
tan 𝐴 ± tan 𝐵 cos 𝜃
tan(𝐴 ± 𝐵) = cot 𝜃 =
1 ∓ tan 𝐴 tan 𝐵 sin 𝜃
Power Reducing Formula Half-Angle Identities
1 − cos 2𝜃
sin 𝜃 = sin = ±
2
1 + cos 2𝜃
cos 𝜃 = cos = ±
2
1 − cos 2𝜃
tan 𝜃 = tan = ±
1 + cos 2𝜃
 Double Angle Formula
sin 2𝜃 = 2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜃 = cos 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 − 1
= 1 − 2 sin 𝜃
2 tan 𝜃
tan 2𝜃 =
1 − tan 𝜃

Formulas from Plane and Solid Geometry

The following symbols are used for measurement:
r = radius l = length w = width b = base h = altitude (height)
A = area B = area of base C = circumference V = volume P = perimeter

Circle Right Circular Cylinder

𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑟 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 𝑆𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟ℎ 𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 ℎ

Triangle Right Circular Cone

𝑃 =𝑎+𝑏 +𝑐 𝐴 = 𝑏ℎ 𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 ℎ

Rectangle Sphere
𝑃 = 2𝑙 + 2𝑤 𝐴 = 𝑙𝑤 𝑆𝐴 = 4𝜋𝑟 𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟

Parallelogram Prism (with parallel base)

𝑃 = 2𝑙 + 2𝑤 𝐴 = 𝑏ℎ 𝑉 = 𝑏ℎ

Trapezoid Pyramid
𝑃 =𝑎+𝑏 +𝑐 𝐴 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)ℎ 𝑉 = 𝑙𝑤ℎ = 𝐵ℎ

II. BASIC THEORIES AND CONCEPTS OF LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Definition of Limits
In mathematics, a limit is a fundamental concept that describes the behavior of a function as its
input approaches a certain value. Specifically, it refers to the value that the function gets closer
and closer to as the input gets arbitrarily close to a specified point.
Formally, the limit of a function 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 approaches a value a is denoted by: 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥)
→
If this limit exists, it means that the values of 𝑓(𝑥) get arbitrarily close to a particular number 𝐿 as
𝑥 approaches 𝑎. This can be expressed mathematically as: 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
→

Theorems on Limits of Functions

Let 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐴 and 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐵, and let c be a constant then the following holds true:
→ →
Theorems
1. Constant Multiple Rule 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑐 = 𝑐
→
2. Sum and Difference Rule 𝑙𝑖𝑚 [𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝐴 ± 𝐵
→
3. Product Rule 𝑙𝑖𝑚 [𝑓(𝑥) ∗ 𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝐴𝐵
→
4. Quotient Rule 𝑓(𝑥) 𝐴
𝑙𝑖𝑚 = , 𝐵≠0
→ 𝑔(𝑥) 𝐵
5. Power Rule 𝑙𝑖𝑚 [𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝐴 , 𝑛 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟
→
6. Root Rule
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝐴 = 𝐴 ,
→
𝑛 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟
(If n is even, we assume that 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 0 for x in an interval containing a.)

The Sum Rule says that the limit of a sum is the sum of the limits. Similarly, the next rules say
that the limit of a difference is the difference of the limits; the limit of a constant times a function
is the constant times the limit of the function; the limit of a product is the product of the limits; the
limit of a quotient is the quotient of the limits (provided that the limit of the denominator is not 0);
the limit of a positive integer power (or root) of a function is the integer power (or root) of the limit
(provided that the root of the limit is a real number).

Examples 1:
(a) lim (𝑥 + 4𝑥 − 3)
→
(b) lim
→
(c) lim √4𝑥 − 3
→
Solutions:
(a) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 (𝑥 + 4𝑥 − 3) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥 + 𝑙𝑖𝑚 4𝑥 − 𝑙𝑖𝑚 3 Sum and Difference Rule
→ → → →
= 𝑐 + 4𝑥 − 3 Power and Multiple Rules

(b) lim = →
( )
Quotient Rule
→ →

= → → →
Sum and Difference Rule
→ →

= Power or Product Rule

(c) lim √4𝑥 − 3 = lim (4𝑥 − 3) Root Rule

→ →

= lim 4𝑥 − lim 3 Difference Rule

→ →

= 4(−2) − 3 Product and Multiple Rules

= √16 − 3
= √13

Limits of Polynomials
If 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑎 𝑥 +. . . +𝑎 , then 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑃(𝑐) = 𝑎 𝑐 + 𝑎 𝑐 +. . . +𝑎
→

Limits of Rational Functions

( ) ( )
If 𝑃(𝑥) and 𝑄(𝑥) are polynomials and 𝑄(𝑐) ≠ 0, then 𝑙𝑖𝑚 ( )
= ( )
→
Example 2:
𝑥 + 4𝑥 − 3 (−1) + 4𝑥 − 3 0
𝑙𝑖𝑚 = = =0
→ 𝑥 +5 (−1) + 5 6

Since the denominator of this rational expression does not equal 0 when we substitute −1 for 𝑥,
we can just compute the value of the expression at 𝑥 = −1 to evaluate the limit.

Eliminating Common Factors from Zero Denominators

Limits of rational functions only applies if the denominator of the rational function is not zero at
the limit point 𝑐. If the denominator is zero, canceling common factors in the numerator and
denominator may reduce the fraction to one whose denominator is no longer zero at 𝑐. If this
happens, we can find the limit by substitution in the simplified fraction.

Example 3. Evaluate
𝑥 +𝑥−2
𝑙𝑖𝑚
→ 𝑥 −𝑥
Solution We cannot substitute x=1 because it makes the denominator zero. We test the numerator
to see if it, too, is zero at 𝑥 = 1. It is, so it has a factor of (𝑥 − 1) in common with the denominator.
Canceling this common factor gives a simpler fraction with the same values as the original for 𝑥 ≠
1:
( )( )
= ( )
= , if 𝑥 ≠ 1
Using the simpler fraction, we find the limit of these values as 𝑥 → 1 by evaluating the function at
𝑥 = 1, as in Limits of Rational Functions
𝑥 +𝑥−2 𝑥+2 1+2
𝑙𝑖𝑚 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 = =3
→ 𝑥 −𝑥 → 𝑥 1
Infinite Limits
As 𝑥 approaches 𝑎, 𝑓(𝑥) increases (decreases) without bound.
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥) = +∞
→
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥) = − ∞
→

Example 4:

(a) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 =−∞ and (b) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 =+∞

→ →

Limits at Infinity
If the values of 𝑓(𝑥) eventually get as close as we like to a number 𝐿 as 𝑥 increases without
bound, we write
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
→
Similarly, if the values of 𝑓(𝑥) eventually get as close as we like to a number 𝐿 as 𝑥 decreases
without bound, then we write
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
→
Limit of polynomials as 𝑥 → ±∞
The end behavior of a polynomial matches the end behavior of its highest degree term.
lim (𝑐 + 𝑐 𝑥+. . . 𝑐 𝑥 ) = lim 𝑐 𝑥
→ →
lim (𝑐 + 𝑐 𝑥+. . . 𝑐 𝑥 ) = lim 𝑐 𝑥
→ →

Examples 5
1.) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 (1 + 2𝑥 − 3𝑥 ) = −∞
→
2.) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 (7𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 9) = −∞
→

Limit of Rational Functions as 𝑥→±∞

The end behavior of a rational function matches the end behavior of the highest degree term in
the numerator divided by the highest degree term in the denominator.

Example 6
1.) 𝑙𝑖𝑚
→
1
4𝑥 − 𝑥 (4𝑥 − 𝑥)
𝑙𝑖𝑚 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥
→ 2𝑥 − 5 → 1
(2𝑥 − 5)
𝑥
4 1
𝑥−𝑥
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚
→ 5
2−
𝑥
0
=
2
=0

2.) 𝑙𝑖𝑚
→

( )
𝑙𝑖𝑚 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 ’
→ → ( )

= 𝑙𝑖𝑚
→
5
=−
3

Limits of Trigonometric Functions

Let c be a real number in the domain of the given trigonometric function.
1. lim 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑐 2. lim 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐 3. lim 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑐
→ → →
4. lim 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑐 5. lim 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑐 6. lim 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝑐
→ → →
Example 7
Find the limit:
1. lim
→

Solution:
Direct substitution yields the indeterminate form 0/0. To solve this problem, you can rewrite the
limit as
lim = 4 lim Multiply and Divide by 4.
→ →
Now, by letting 𝑧 = 4𝑥 and observing that 𝑥 approaches 0 if and only if 𝑦 approaches 0, you can
write
lim = 4 lim
→ →
= 4 lim Let 𝑧 = 4𝑥
→
= 4(1)
=4

2. lim
→

Solution Direct substitution yields the indeterminate form 0/0. To solve this problem, you can write
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 as (𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥)/ (𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥) and obtain
tan 𝑥 sin 𝑥 1
lim = lim
→ 𝑥 → 𝑥 cos 𝑥
Now, because lim = 1 and lim = 1 you can obtain
→ →
tan 𝑥 sin 𝑥 1
lim = lim
→ 𝑥 → 𝑥 cos 𝑥
= (1)(1)
=1