Cell Theory * Robert Hooke confirmed earlier findings and coined the term “cell.

”, the
1. All organisms are composed of one or more cells. English biologist who observed algae and fungi in the 1660s.
2. Cells are the basic living unit of structure and function in organisms. * Matthias Schleiden stated that plants are composed of cells.
3. All cells come only from other cells.
Size of Cell
Cell Theory (cont.) 1. Cell size varies, but are quite small.
Four generalizations constitute the cell theory: 2. A frog’s egg is about 1 millimeter (1mm) in diameter.
1. Every living organism consists of one or more cells  Large enough to be seen by naked eye
2. A cell is the smallest unit of life, individually alive even as part of a 3. Most cells are smaller than 1mm.
multicelled organism 4. Some cells are as small as 1 micrometer (1mm).
3. All living cells come from division of preexisting cells 5. Microscopes permit extremely small objects to be seen, objects
4. Cells contain hereditary material, which they pass to their offspring measured in the metric system in micrometers and nanometers.
during division. 6. A micrometer (μm) is equivalent to a millionth of a meter, while
a nanometer (nm) is a billionth of a meter.
Two main types of cells 7. Bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and unicellular algae are normally
There are 2 components to the cell theory. measured in micrometers, while viruses are commonly measured in
i) All organisms are composed of cells. nanometers.
ii) Cells come only from preexisting cells. 8. A typical bacterium such as Escherichia coli measures about 2
* All cells have an outer membrane called the plasma membrane. micrometers in length and about 1 micrometer in width.
* The plasma membrane encloses a semifluid substance called the
cytoplasm and the cell’s genetic material.
* The word “cell” entered biology in the 17th century.
* Anton van Leeuwenhoek is recognized for inventing one of the earliest
microscopes and observing a first cell. Constructed a number of simple
microscopes and observed details of numerous forms of protozoa, fungi, and
bacteria in 1670s.
Size of Cell (cont.) Types of microscopes
1. Cells being small is an advantage for multicellular organisms:  Microscope are divided into LM &EM
 Nutrients such as glucose can enter the cell. LM
 Wastes such as CO2 can exit cell. 1. Light microscopes
 Therefore surface area affects the ability to get materials in and 2. Phase-contrast microscopes
out of a cell. 3. Fluorescence microscope
 As cells increase in volume, the proportionate amount of surface EM
area decreases. 1. Electron microscopes
2. For a cube-shaped cell: 2. Transmission electron Microscopes
 The volume increases by the cube of the sides (height X width 3. Scanning electron microscopes
X depth).
 The surface area increases the square of the sides and the Examples of microscopes
number of sides (height X width X 6). 1. Compound light microscope
 If a cell doubles in size, its surface area increases fourfold,
while the volume increases eightfold.

Surface Area / Volume Ratio

2. Transmission electron microscope (TEM)

1. The size to which cells can grow is limited by their surface area to
volume ratio.
2. All 3 have the same volume, but the group on the right has 4 times
the surface area
The light microscope 2nd alternative microscope is the phase‐contrast microscope
1. The common light microscope used in the laboratory is called a 1. This microscope also contains special condensers that throw light
compound microscope because it contains 2 types of lenses that “out of phase” and cause it to pass through the object at different
function to magnify an object. speeds.
2. A compound light microscope often contains 4 objective lenses: 2. Live, unstained organisms are seen clearly with this microscope,
 Scanning lens (4X), low‐power lens (10X), high‐power lens (40 and internal cell parts such as mitochondria, lysosomes, and the
X), and oil‐immersion lens (100 X). Golgi body can be seen with this instrument.
 An ocular lens that magnifies 10 times, the total magnifications
possible will be 40 X with the scanning lens, 100 X with the The fluorescent microscope
low‐power lens, 400 X with the high‐power lens, and 1000 X 1. Uses ultraviolet light as its light source.
with the oil‐immersion lens. 2. When ultraviolet light hits an object, it excites the electrons of the
object, and they give off light in various shades of color.
3. Since ultraviolet light is used, the resolution of the object increases.
4. A laboratory technique called the fluorescent‐antibody technique
employs fluorescent dyes and antibodies to help identify unknown
bacteria.
Electron microscopy Cells under the microscope (cont.)
 The energy source used in the electron microscope is a beam of 1. Light microscopes can be used to view cells but not in much detail.
electrons. 2. Electron microscopes allow the structure of cells to be viewed in
 Since the beam has an exceptionally short wavelength, it strikes most greater detail.
objects in its path and increases the resolution of the microscope
significantly. The light microscope v the electron microscope
 Viruses and some large molecules can be seen with this instrument.
 The electrons travel in a vacuum to avoid contact with deflecting air
molecules, and magnets focus the beam on the object to be viewed.
 An image is created on a monitor and viewed by the technologist.

Transmission electron microscope (TEM)

 The more traditional form of electron microscope.
 To use this instrument, one places ultrathin slices of
microorganisms or viruses on a wire grid and then stains them with
gold or palladium before viewing.
 The densely coated parts of the specimen deflect the electron beam,
and both dark and light areas show up on the image.

Scanning electron microscope (SEM)

 The more contemporary form electron microscope.
 This microscope gives lower magnifications than the TEM
 The SEM permits three-dimensional views of microorganisms and
other objects. Whole objects are used, and gold or palladium
staining is employed.
The relationship between the surface area to volume ratio of a cell and
its size
 Cells are small because they are limited by their surface-area-to-
volume-ratio.
 The surface area of a cell is critical because it must be large enough
to allow adequate nutrients to enter the cell.
 Cells can increase their surface area with specialized projections.

Cell structure and microscopy