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EIA THE EIA PROCESS

C HAPTER-II

THE EIA PROCESS


Environmental impact assessment: a process
In essence, EIA is a process, a systematic process that examines the environmental
consequences of development actions, in advance. The emphasis, compared with many
other mechanisms for environmental protection, is on prevention. Of course planners
have traditionally assessed the impacts of developments on the environment, but
invariably not in the systematic, holistic and multidisciplinary way required by EIA.
The process involves a number of steps, as outlined in Figure-1. These are briefly
described below, pending a much fuller discussion in coming sections. It should be
clearly noted at this stage that, although the steps are outlined in linear fashion, EIA
should be a cyclical activity, with feedback and interaction between the various steps. It
should also be noted that practice can and does vary considerably from the process
illustrated in' Figure. The order of the steps in the process may also vary.
. Project screening narrows the application Of EIA to those projects that may have
significant environmental impacts. Screening may be partly determined by the EIA
regulations operating in a country at the time of assessment.
. Scoping seeks to identify at an early stage, from all of a project's possible impacts and
from all the alternatives that could be addressed, those that are the key, significant
issues.
. Consideration of alternatives seeks to ensure that the proponent has considered other
feasible approaches, including alternative project locations, scales, processes, layouts,
operating conditions, and the "no action" option.
. Description of the project/development action includes a clarification of the purpose and
rationale of the project, and an understanding of its various characteristics - including
stages of development, location and processes.
. Description of the environmental baseline includes the establishment of both the present
and future state of the environment, in the absence of the project, taking into account
changes resulting from natural events and from other human activities.
. Identification of key impacts brings together the previous steps with the aims of ensuring
that all potentially significant environmental impacts (adverse and beneficial) are
identified and taken into account in the process.
. The prediction of impacts aims to identify the magnitude and other dimensions of
identified change in the environment with a project/action, by comparison with the
situation without that project/action.
. Evaluation and assessment of significance seeks to assess the relative significance of the

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predicted impacts to allow a focus on key adverse impacts. . Mitigation involves the
introduction of measures to avoid, reduce, remedy or compensate for any significant
adverse impacts.
. Public consultation and participation aims to assure the quality, comprehensiveness and
effectiveness of the EIA, as well as to ensure that the public's views are adequately
taken into consideration in the decision-making process.
. EIS presentation is a vital step in the process. If done badly, much good work in the EIA
may be negated.
. Review involves a systematic appraisal of the quality of the EIS, as a contribution to the
decision-making process.
. Decision-making on the project involves a consideration by the relevant authority of the
EIS (including consultation responses) together with other material considerations.
. Post-decision monitoring involves the recording of outcomes associated with
development impacts, after a decision to proceed. It can contribute to effective project
management.
. Auditing follows from monitoring. It can involve comparing actual outcomes with
predicted outcomes, and can be used to assess the quality of predictions and the
effectiveness of mitigation. It provides a vital step in the EIA learning process.

Environmental impact statements: the documentation


The environmental impact statement provides documentation of the information and
estimates of impacts derived from the various steps in the process. Prevention is better
than cure; an EIS revealing many significant unavoidable adverse impacts would
provide valuable information that could contribute to the abandonment or substantial
modification of a proposed development action. Where adverse impacts can be
successfully reduced through mitigation measures, there may be a different decision.
Table below provides an example of the content of an EIS for a project.
The non-technical summary is an important element in the documentation; EIA can be
complex and the summary can help to improve communication with the various parties
involved. Reflecting the potential complexity of the process, a
~ Methods statement, at the beginning, provides an opportunity to clarify some basic
information (e.g. who is the developer, who has produced the EIS, who has been
consulted and how, what methods have been used, what difficulties have been
encountered and what are the limitations of the EIA?). A summary statement of key issues,
up-front, can also help to improve communications. More enlightened EISs would also
include a monitoring programme, either here or at the end of the document. The
background to the proposed development covers the early steps in the EIA process,
including clear descriptions of the project, and baseline conditions (including relevant
planning policies and plans). Within each of the topic areas of the EIS there would

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normally be discussion of existing conditions, predicted impacts, scope for mitigation


and residual impacts.
EIA and EIS practice vary from study to study, from country to country, and best
practice is constantly evolving. A recent UN study of EIA practice in several countries
advocated changes in the process and documentation (United Nations Economic
Commission for Europe 1991). These included giving a greater emphasis to the socio-
economic dimension, to public participation, and to "after the decision" activity, such as
monitoring.
Table- An EIS for a project - example of contents. Non-technical summary
Part 1: Methods and key issues
1. Methods statement
2. Summary of key issues; monitoring programme statement
Part 2: Background to the proposed development
3. Preliminary studies: need, planning, alternatives, site selection 4. Site description/baseline
conditions
4. Description of proposed development
5. Construction activities and programme
Part 3: Environmental impact assessment - topic areas
6. Land use, landscape and visual quality
7. Geology, topography and soils
8. Hydrology and water quality
9. Air quality and climate
10. Ecology: terrestrial and aquatic
11. Noise
12. Transport
13. Socio-economic
14. Interrelationships between effects

2.1 EIA-team

The final structure of the team will vary depending on the project. Specialists may also
be required for fieldwork, laboratory testing, library research, data processing, surveys
and modeling. The team leader will require significant management skill to co-ordinate
the work of a team with diverse skills and knowledge.

There will be a large number of people involved in EIA apart from the full-time team
members. These people will be based in a wide range of organizations, such as the
project proposing and authorizing bodies, regulatory authorities and various interest
groups. Such personnel would be located in various agencies and also in the private

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sector; a considerable number will need specific EIA training. It is essential that the EIA
team and the team carrying out the feasibility study work together and not in isolation
from each other. This often provides the only opportunity for design changes to be
made and mitigation measures to be incorporated in the project design.

2.2 Starting up/Early stages

The EIA process makes sure that environmental issues are raised when a project or plan
is first discussed and that all concerns are addressed as a project gains momentum
through to implementation. Recommendations made by the EIA may necessitate the
redesign of some project components, require further studies, and suggest changes
which alter the economic viability of the project or cause a delay in project
implementation. To be of most benefit it is essential that an environmental assessment is
carried out to determine significant impacts early in the project cycle so that
recommendations can be built into the design and cost-benefit analysis without causing
major delays or increased design costs. To be effective once implementation has
commenced, the EIA should lead to a mechanism whereby adequate monitoring is
undertaken to realize environmental management. An important output from the EIA
process should be the delineation of enabling mechanisms for such effective
management.

2.2.1 Project screening - is an EIA needed?

The number of projects that could be subject to EIA is potentially very large. Yet many
projects have no substantial or significant environmental impact. A screening
mechanism seeks to focus on those projects with potentially significant adverse
environmental impacts or where the impacts are not fully known. Those with little or
no impacts are screened out and are allowed to proceed to the normal planning
permission / administrative processes without any additional assessment and without
additional loss of time and expense.

Projects should be screened during identification phase to determine the appropriate


type of environmental analysis based on the nature, potential magnitude and sensitivity
of the issue. After the World Bank indications, the screened project has to be assigned
one of the following categories:
a) EIA is normally required as the project may have diverse and significant environmental
impacts. From this category are mentioned:
Dams and Reservoirs
Irrigation and Drainage (Large Scale)

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Land Clearance and Leveling


Pipelines
Port and harbor development
Reclamation and new land development
Resettlement
River basin development
Thermal and hydropower development
Urban water supply and sanitation, etc…
b) More limited environmental analysis is appropriate, as the project may have specific EI,
eg.
Mini hydropower
Small scale irrigation and drainage
Water supply and sanitation
c) Environmental analysis is normally unnecessary for projects related to:
Education
Health
Nutrition and
Institutional development

Some EIA procedures include an initial outline EIA study to check on likely
environmental impacts and on their significance. Under the California Environmental
Quality Act a "negative declaration" can be produced by the project proponent, thereby
claiming that the project has minimal significant effects and does not require a full EIA.
The declaration must be substantiated by an initial study, which is usually a simple
checklist against which environmental impacts must be ticked as "yes", "maybe" or "no".
If the responses are primarily "no", and most of the "yes" and "maybe" responses can be
mitigated, then the project may be screened out from a full EIA.

The output from the screening process is often a document called an Initial
Environmental Examination or Evaluation (IEE). The main conclusion will be a
classification of the project according to its likely environmental sensitivity. This will
determine whether an EIA is needed and if so to what detail.

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Introduction
EIA Procedure’s
Sub-reports

Initial Environmental Environmental Impact


Examination Assessment
(IEE) (EIA)

•Used for project screening to determine


Which project requires a full scale EIA
•Assess the potential environmental effects
of a proposed project
•Is done with in a very limited budget

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FIGURE: THE EIA PROCESS

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2.2.2 Scoping: which impacts and issues to consider?


Scoping occurs early in the project cycle (at the pre-feasibility stage of the project) at the
same time as outline planning and pre-feasibility studies. Scoping is the process of
identifying the key environmental issues and is perhaps the most important step in an
EIA. Several groups, particularly decision makers, the local population and the scientific
community, have an interest in helping to deliberate the issues which should be
considered, and scoping is designed to canvass their views, (Wathern 1988).
The scope of the EIA is the impacts and issues that it addresses. The process of scoping
is that of determining, from all a project's possible impacts and from all the alternatives
that could be addressed, those that are the key, significant ones. An initial scoping of
possible impacts may identify those impacts thought to be potentially significant, those
thought to be non-significant, and those where the position is unclear. Further study
should examine impacts in the various categories. Those confirmed by such study to be
non-significant are eliminated; those in the uncertain category that may be potentially
significant are added to the initial category of other potentially significant impacts. This
refining of focus onto the most significant impacts continues throughout the EIA
process.
Scoping is generally carried out in discussions between the developer, the competent
authority, other relevant agencies and ideally the public. It is often the first stage of
negotiations and consultation between a developer and other interested parties. It is an
important step in EIA because it enables the limited resources of the team preparing an
EIA to be allocated to best effect, and prevents misunderstanding between the parties
concerned about the information required in an EIS (Environmental Impact Statement).
Scoping can also identify issues that should later be monitored.
Scoping is important for two reasons. First, so that problems can be pinpointed early
allowing mitigating design changes to be made before expensive detailed work is
carried out. Second, to ensure that detailed prediction work is only carried out for
important issues. It is not the purpose of an EIA to carry out exhaustive studies on all
environmental impacts for all projects. If key issues are identified and a full scale EIA
considered necessary then the scoping should include terms of reference for these
further studies.
At this stage the option exists for canceling or drastically revising the project should
major environmental problems be identified. Equally it may be the end of the EIA
process should the impacts be found to be insignificant. Once this stage has passed, the
opportunity for major changes to the project is restricted.
The main EIA techniques used in scoping are baseline studies, checklists, matrices and
network diagrams. These techniques collect and present knowledge and information in
a straightforward way so that logical decisions can be made about which impacts are
most significant. (To be discussed in chap.-III)

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2.2.3 Consideration of alternatives


If a project is not screened out, and is believed to have potentially significant impacts on
the environment, then an EIA is undertaken for the project and ideally for feasible
alternatives. During the course of project planning, many decisions are made
concerning the type and scale of project proposed, its location, and the processes
involved. Most of the possible alternatives that arise will be rejected by the developer
on economic, technical or regulatory grounds. The role of EIA is to ensure that
environmental criteria are also considered at these early stages.
The US Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ 1978) calls the discussion of
alternatives "the heart of the environmental impact statement": how an EIA addresses
alternatives will determine its relation to the subsequent decision-making process. A
discussion of alternatives ensures that the developer has considered both other
approaches to the project and the means of preventing environmental damage. A
consideration of alternatives also encourages analysts to focus on differences between
ad hocs. It can allow people who were not directly involved in the decision-making
process to evaluate various aspects of the proposed project and how they were arrived
at. It also provides a framework for the competent authority's decision, rather than
merely a justification for a particular action. Finally, if unforeseen difficulties arise
during construction or operation of a project, a re-examination of these alternatives may
help to provide rapid and cost-effective solutions.
A thorough consideration of alternatives would begin early in the planning process,
before the type and scale of development and its location have been agreed on. A
number of broad types of alternatives can be considered: the "no action" option,
alternative locations, alternative scales of the project, alternative processes or
equipment, alternative site layouts, alternative operating conditions, or alternative ways
of dealing with environmental impacts.

2.3 Impact Prediction, Evaluation and Mitigation


The focus of this chapter is on the central steps of impact prediction, evaluation and
mitigation. This is the heart of the EIA process, although as already noted the process is
not linear. Indeed the whole EIA exercise is about prediction. It is needed at the earliest
stages when the project, including alternatives, is being planned and designed, and it
continues through to mitigation, monitoring and auditing. Yet, despite the centrality of
prediction in EIA, there is a tendency for many studies to underemphasize it at the
expense of more descriptive studies. Prediction is often not treated as an explicit stage
in the process; clearly defined models are often missing from studies. Even when used,
models are not detailed and there is little discussion of limitations.
Evaluation follows from prediction and involves an assessment of the relative
significance of the impacts. Methods range from the intuitive to the analytical, from

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qualitative to quantitative, from formal to informal. Cost-benefit analysis, monetary


valuation techniques, and multi-criteria/multi-attribute methods, with their scoring and
weighting systems, provide a number of ways into the evaluation issue.

Dimensions of prediction: (what to predict?)


The objective of prediction is to identify the magnitude and other dimensions of
identified change in the environment with a project/action, in comparison with the
situation without that project/action. Predictions also provide the basis for the
assessment of significance. One starting point to identify the dimensions of prediction is
the legislative requirements.
Prediction involves the identification of potential change in indicators of such
environment receptors. Scoping will have identified the broad categories of impacts in
relation to the project under consideration. If a particular environmental indicator (e.g.
SO2 levels in the air) revealed an increasing problem in an area, irrespective of the
project/action (e.g. a power station), this should be predicted forwards as the baseline
for this particular indicator. These indicators need to be disaggregated and specified to
provide variables that are measurable and relevant. For example an economic impact
could be progressively specified as direct employment ~ local employment ~ local skilled
employment. In this way, a list of significant impact indicators of policy relevance can be
developed.
An important distinction is often made between the prediction of the likely magnitude
(i.e. size) and the significance (i.e. importance for decision-making) of the impacts.
Magnitude does not always equate with significance. For example, a large
proportionate increase in one pollutant may still result in an outcome within generally
accepted standards, whereas a small increase in another may take it above the
applicable standards. In terms of the Sassaman checklist, the latter is crossing the
threshold of concern and the former is not. This also highlights the distinction between
objective and subjective approaches. Prediction of the magnitude of impacts should be
an objective exercise, although this is not always easy. The determination of
significance is a more subjective exercise as it normally involves value judgments.
Prediction should also identify direct and indirect impacts (simple cause-effect
diagrams may be useful here), the geographical extent of impacts (e.g. local, regional,
and national), whether the impacts are beneficial or adverse, and the duration of the
impacts. In addition to prediction over the time horizon of the project (including, for
example, the construction, operational and other stages), the analyst should also be
alert to the "rate of change" of impacts. A slow build-up in an impact may be more
acceptable than a rapid change; the development of tourism projects in formerly
remote/undeveloped areas provides a contemporary and topical example of the
damaging impacts of rapid changes.

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Methods and models to prediction: how to predict


Prediction methods can be classified in many ways, which are not mutually exclusive.
Some may be extrapolative, others may be more normative. For extrapolative methods,
predications are made that are consistent with past and present data. Extrapolative
methods include, for example;
☻ trend analysis (extrapolating present trends, modified to take account of
changes caused by the project),
☻ scenarios (common sense forecasts of future state based on variety of
assumptions),
☻ analogies (transferring experience from elsewhere to the study in hand)
Normative approaches work backwards from desired outcomes to assess whether the
project, in its environmental context, is adequate to achieve them. For example, a
desired socio-economic outcome from the construction stage of a major project may be
50% local employment. The achievement of this outcome may necessitate modifications
to the project and/or to associated employment policies (e.g. on training). Various
scenarios may be tested to determine that most likely to achieve the desired outcome.

Evaluation in the EIA process


Once impacts have been predicted, there is a need to assess their relative significance.
Criteria for significance include:
☻ the magnitude and likelihood of the impact and its spatial and temporal
extent
☻ the likely degree of recovery of the affected environment
☻ the level of public concern
☻ political repercussions
Evaluation methods can be of various types: including formal or informal, quantitative
or qualitative, aggregated or disaggregated. The most formal is the comparison of likely
impacts against legal requirements and standards.
Other methods include:
o cost-benefit analysis
o multi-criteria analysis
o decision analysis
o goal achievement

Mitigation in the EIA process:

Mitigation is defined as measure envisaged in order to avoid, reduce, and if possible


remedy significant adverse effects. The aim will be to introduce measures which
minimize any identified adverse impacts and enhance positive impacts. Formal and
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informal communication links need to be established with teams carrying out feasibility
studies so that their work can take proposals into account. Similarly, feasibility studies
may indicate that some options are technically or economically unacceptable and thus
environmental prediction work for these options will not be required.

By the time prediction and mitigation are undertaken, the project preparation will be
advanced and a decision will most likely have been made to proceed with the project.
Considerable expenditure may have already been made and budgets allocated for the
implementation of the project. Major changes could be disruptive to project processing
and only accepted if prediction shows that impacts will be considerably worse than
originally identified at the scoping stage. For example, an acceptable measure might be
to alter the mode of operation of a reservoir to protect downstream fisheries, but a
measure proposing an alternative to dam construction could be highly contentious at
this stage. To avoid conflict it is important that the EIA process commences early in the
project cycle.

2.4 Participation, Presentation and Review

The aim of the EIA process is to provide information about a proposal's likely
environmental impacts to the developer, public and decision-makers so that a better
decision may be made. As such, how the information is presented, how the various
interested parties use that information, and how the final decision incorporates the
results of the EIA and the views of the various parties, are essential components in the
EIA process.

Projects or programmes have significant impacts on the local population. Whilst the aim
is to improve the well being of the population, a lack of understanding of the people
and their society may result in development that has considerable negative
consequences. More significantly, there may be divergence between national economic
interests and those of the local population. For example, the need to increase local rice
production to satisfy increasing consumption in the urban area may differ from the
needs as perceived by the local farmers. To allow for this, public participation in the
planning process is essential. The EIA provides an ideal forum for checking that the
affected publics have been adequately consulted and their views taken into account in
project preparation.

The role of public consultation and participation in the EIA process is to assure the
quality, comprehensiveness, and effectiveness of the EIA, as well as to ensure that the
public's views are adequately taken into consideration in the decision-making process.
Public participation can be useful at most stages of the process:

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. In determining the scope of the EIA


. In evaluating the relative significance of the likely impacts
. In providing specialist knowledge about the site
. In proposing mitigation measures
. In ensuring that the EIS is objective, truthful and complete, and
. In monitoring any conditions set on the development agreement.
The level of consultation will vary depending on the type of plan or project. New
projects involving resettlement or displacement will require the most extensive public
participation. As stated before, the purpose of an EIA is to improve projects and this, to
some extent, can only be achieved by involving those people directly or indirectly
affected. The value of environmental amenities is not absolute and consensus is one
way of establishing values. Public consultation will reveal new information, improve
understanding and enable better choices to be made. Without consultation, legitimate
issues may not be heard, leading to conflict and unsustainability.
The community should not only be consulted, they should be actively involved in
environmental matters. The International Union for the Conservation of Nature, IUCN
promotes the concept of Primary Environmental Care whereby farmers, for example,
with assistance from extension services, are directly involved in environmental
management. The earlier the public are involved, the better. Ideally this will be before a
development proposal is fully defined. It is an essential feature of successful scoping, at
which stage feedback will have the maximum influence. Openness about uncertainty
should be a significant feature of this process. As the EIA progresses, public
consultation is likely to be decreased though it is important to disseminate information.
The publication of the draft Environmental Impact Statement (EIS), will normally be
accompanied by some sort of public hearing that needs to be chaired by a person with
good communication skills. He/she may not be a member of the EIA team.
There are no clear rules about how to involve the public and it is important that the
process remains innovative and flexible. In practice, the views of people affected by the
plan are likely to be heard through some form of representation rather than directly. It
is therefore important to understand how decisions are made locally and what the
methods of communication are, including available government extension services. The
range of groups outside the formal structure with relevant information is likely to
include: technical and scientific societies; Water User Groups; NGOs; experts on local
culture; and religious groups. However, it is important to find out which groups are
under-represented and which ones are responsible for access to natural resources,
namely: grazing, water, fishing and forest products. The views of racial minorities,
women, religious minorities, political minorities and lower cast groups are commonly
overlooked (World Bank, 1991).
In some countries, open public meetings are the most common technique to enable
public participation. However, the sort of open debate engendered at such meetings is
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often both culturally alien and unacceptable. Alternative techniques must be used.
Surveys, workshops, small group meetings and interviews with key groups and
individuals are all techniques that may be useful. Tools such as maps, models and
posters can help to illustrate points and improve communication. Where resettlement is
proposed, extensive public participation must be allowed which will, at a minimum,
involve an experienced anthropologist or sociologist who speaks the local language.
He/she can expect to spend months, rather than weeks, in the field.

EIS presentation
Although the EIA regulations specify the minimum contents required in an EIS, they do
not give any standard for the presentation of this information. EISs range from a three-
page typed and stapled EIS, to glossy brochures with computer graphics, and multi-
volume documents in purpose designed binders. This section discusses the contents,
organization, and clarity of communication and presentation of an EIS.

Contents and organization


Most EISs are broadly organized into four sections: a no technical summary, a
discussion of relevant methods and issues, a description of the project and of
environmental baseline conditions, and a discussion of the project's likely
environmental impacts (which may include the discussion of baseline environmental
conditions and predicted impacts, proposed mitigation measures and residual impacts).
Ideally, an EIS should also include the main alternatives that were considered, and
proposals for monitoring.
An EIS should explain why some impacts are not addressed. The introductory chapter,
or an appendix, should include a "finding of no significant impact" section that explains
why some impacts may be considered to be insignificant. If, for instance, the
development is unlikely to affect the climate, a reason for this conclusion should be
given. An EIS should emphasize key points. These should have been identified during
the scoping exercise, but additional issues may arise during the course of the EIA. The
EIS should set the context of the issues. The names of the developer, relevant
consultants, relevant local planning authorities and consul tees should be listed, along
with a contact person who can supply further information. The main relevant planning
issues and legislation should be explained. The EIS should also indicate any references
used, and include a bibliography.
The EIS should be kept as brief as possible while still presenting the necessary
information. The main text should include all relevant discussion of impacts, and
appendices should present only additional data and documentation. They are usually
expected to be less than 150 pages.

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2.5 Monitoring and Auditing after Decision

The part of the EIS covering monitoring and management is often referred to as the
Environmental Action Plan or Environmental Management Plan. This section not only
sets out the mitigation measures needed for environmental management, both in the
short and long term, but also the institutional requirements for implementation. The
term 'institutional' is used here in its broadest context to encompass relationships:

• established by law between individuals and government;


• between individuals and groups involved in economic transactions;
• developed to articulate legal, financial and administrative links among public
agencies;
• motivated by socio-psychological stimuli among groups and individuals (Craine,
1971).

The above list highlights the breadth of options available for environmental
management, namely: changes in law; changes in prices; changes in governmental
institutions; and, changes in culture which may be influenced by education and
information dissemination. All the management proposals need to be clearly defined
and coated. One of the more straightforward and effective changes is to set-up a
monitoring programme with clear definition as to which agencies are responsible for
data collection, collation, interpretation and implementation of management measures.

The purpose of monitoring is to compare predicted and actual impacts, particularly if


the impacts are either very important or the scale of the impact cannot be very
accurately predicted. The results of monitoring can be used to manage the environment,
particularly to highlight problems early so that action can be taken. The range of
parameters requiring monitoring may be broad or narrow and will be dictated by the
'prediction and mitigation' stage of the EIA. Typical areas of concern where monitoring
is weak are: water quality, both inflow and outflow; stress in sensitive ecosystems; soil
fertility, particularly salinization problems; water related health hazards; equity of
water distributions; groundwater levels.

The use of satellite imagery to monitor changes in land use and the 'health' of the land
and sea is becoming more common and can prove a cost-effective tool, particularly in
areas with poor access. Remotely sensed data have the advantage of not being
constrained by political and administrative boundaries. They can be used as one
particular overlay in a GIS. However, authorization is needed for their use, which may
be linked to national security issues, and may thus be hampered by reluctant
governments.

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Monitoring should not be seen as an open-ended commitment to collect data. If the


need for monitoring ceases, data collection should cease. Conversely, monitoring may
reveal the need for more intensive study and the institutional infrastructure must be
sufficiently flexible to adapt to changing demands. The information obtained from
monitoring and management can be extremely useful for future EIAs, making them
both more accurate and more efficient.

The Environmental Management Plan needs to not only include clear recommendations
for action and the procedures for their implementation but must also define a
programme and costs. It must be quite clear exactly how management and mitigation
methods are phased with project implementation and when costs will be incurred.
Mitigation and management measures will not be adopted unless they can be shown to
be practicable and good value for money. The plan should also stipulate that if, during
project implementation, major changes are introduced, or if the project is aborted, the
EIA procedures will be re-started to evaluate the effect of such actions.

Auditing

In order to capitalize on the experience and knowledge gained, the last stage of an EIA
is to carry out an Environmental Audit some time after completion of the project or
implementation of a programme. It will therefore usually be done by a separate team of
specialists to that working on the bulk of the EIA. The audit should include an analysis
of the technical, procedural and decision-making aspects of the EIA. Technical aspects
include: the adequacy of the baseline studies, the accuracy of predictions and the
suitability of mitigation measures. Procedural aspects include: the efficiency of the
procedure, the fairness of the public involvement measures and the degree of
coordination of roles and responsibilities. Decision-making aspects include: the utility
of the process for decision making and the implications for development, (adapted from
Sadler in Wathern, 1988). The audit will determine whether recommendations and
requirements made by the earlier EIA steps were incorporated successfully into project
implementation. Lessons learnt and formally described in an audit can greatly assist in
future EIAs and build up the expertise and efficiency of the concerned institutions.

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