A Tutorial on Web Security

for E-Commerce

1
Web Concepts for E-Commerce

• Client/Server Applications
• Communication Channels
• TCP/IP

2
 Client/Server
Applications
Request

Client Server

Response

3
 Communication
Channels
Internet

Client Server
Intranet

Extranet

4
 OSI Model
Application Allows access to network resources

Presentation Translates, encrypts and compresses

data

Session Establishes, manages and terminates

sessions

Transport Provides end-to-end message delivery &

error recovery

Network Moves packets from source to

destination; Provides internetworking

Data Link Organizes bits into frames; Provides

node-to-node delivery

Physical Transmits bits; Provides mechanical

and electrical specifications

5
 TCP/IP and OSI Model

Application Applications
SMTP TELNET SNMP NFS
Presentation
RPC

FTP DNS TFTP HTTP

Session

Transport TCP UDP

Network
ICMP IP ARP RARP

Data Link
Protocols defined by
the underlying
Physical networks
6
 TCP/IP and OSI Model cont’d

Application
Message

Presentation Applications

Session
Segment
Transport TCP UDP

Network Datagram
IP

Frame
Data Link Protocols defined
by
the underlying Bits
Physical networks
7
 TCP/IP and Addressing
Application Processes
layer

Transport
layer Port
TCP UDP
address
Network
layer
IP and IP
other address
Data link
layer protocols

Physical
layer
Underlying Physical
physical address
networks

8
 Typical B2C Transaction
Bank Bank

Katie’s Bank CD Store

Merchant’s Bank

Internet Payment Network

Katie’s
order Online
CD Store

Web Server

ISP

Logistics
Order printed at
CD warehouse

Katie sends
Order Form CD arrives 2-3 days
after order is received

9
Web Security Threats in B2C
Internet Backbone

E
Breaking into
D store database

Online CD Store
Web Server

ISP B
Sniffer at ISP

C
Sniffer on CD
Warehouse
Internet backbone

A
Tapping line

Katie

10
11
 Security Threats
• Security threats A to D can be
handled by providing secure
transmission - cryptographic
methods
• Threat E and similar types
managed by access control
methods
• Other types of security threats
– Illegal access of server computing
system (webjacking)
– Illegal access to client computing
system
– Unauthorized use of client
information
– Denial of Service
12
 Information Security
Threats
• Internet Cryptography
Techniques
• Transport Layer Security
• Application Layer Security
• Server Proxies and Firewalls

13
 Purpose of
Cryptography
• Secure stored information -
regardless if access obtained
• Secure transmitted information -
regardless if transmission has
been monitored

14
 Services Provided by
Cryptography
• Confidentiality
– provides privacy for messages
and stored data by hiding
• Message Integrity
– provides assurance to all parties
that a message remains
unchanged
• Non-repudiation
– Can prove a document came from
X even if X denies it
• Authentication
– identifies the origin of a message
– verifies the identity of person
using a computer system
15
 Cryptography
• Encryption Overview
– Plain text is converted to cipher
text by use of an algorithm and
key.
• Algorithm is publicly known
• Key is held private
– Three Main Categories
• Secret Key
– single key is used to encrypt and decrypt
information
• Public/Private Key
– two keys are used: one for encryption
(public key) and one for decryption
(private key)
• One-way Function
– information is encrypted to produce a
“digest” of the original information that
can be used later to prove its authenticity
16
 Encryption Techniques
• Secret Key (Symmetric)
– Sender and receiver have the same
secret key that will encrypt and
decrypt plain text
– Strength of encryption technique
depends on key length
– Known symmetrical algorithms
• Data Encryption Standard (DES)
– 56 bit key
• Triple DES, DESX, GDES, RDES
– 168 bit key
• RC2, RC4, RC5
– variable length up to 2048 bits
• IDEA - basis of PGP
– 128 bit key
• Blowfish
– variable length up to 448 bits
17
Encryption Techniques (con’t)
• Asymmetric Encryption
(Public/Private Key)
– user X has a pair of keys one
public and one private
– To encrypt a message to X use X’s
public key
– X will decrypt encrypted message
using X’s private key that
“matches” X’s public key
– Most common algorithm is the
RSA (Rivest Shamir Adelman)
algorithm with key lengths from
512 to 1024 bits.

18
Encryption Techniques (con’t)
• One-Way Function
– non-reversible “quick” encryption
– produces a fixed length value
called a hash or message digest
– used to authenticate contents of a
message
– Common message digest
functions
• MD4 and MD5
– produces 128 bit hashes
• SHA
– produces 160 bit hashes

19
 Cryptographic Services Allow
• Digital Signatures
– sign messages to validate source and
integrity of the contents
• Digital Envelopes
– secure delivery of secret keys
• Message Digests
– short bit string hash of message
• Certificates (Digital Ids)
– used to authenticate: users, web sites,
public keys of public/private pair,
and information in general
• Secure Channels
– Encryption can be used to create
secure channels over private or
public networks
20
 Digital Signatures
• Digital Signature
– Encrypt sender’s identity string with
sender’s private key
– Concatenate the encrypted text and the
identity string together
– Encrypt this message with receiver’s
public key to create message
– Receiver decrypts the encrypted text with
their private key
– the cypher text portion of the message is
decrypted with sender’s public key
– The decrypted text can be compared with
the normal text to checks its integrity

21
 Digital Envelope
• Public/Private key encryption /
decryption useful for internet
• Limitations
– encryption / decryption slow
– not reasonable for large
documents
• Combine symmetric and
asymmetric methods
– sender creates and uses symmetric
(session) key to create cipher text
– sender uses receiver’s public key
to encrypt the symmetric key -
digital envelope
– sender transmits both cipher text
and digital envelope to receiver
22
 Message Digests
• How to create and use a message
digest
– sender uses message as input to digest
function
– “sign” (encrypt) output (hash) with
sender’s private key
– send signed hash and original message
(in plain text) to receiver
– receiver decrypts hash with sender’s
public key
– receiver runs plain text message through
digest function to obtain a hash
– if receiver’s decrypted hash and
computed hash match then message
valid.

23
 Digital Certificates (ID)
• Certification Authorities (CA)
– used to distribute the public key of a
public/private pair
– guarantees the validity of the public
key
• does this by verifying the credentials of the
entity associated with the public key
– Some Case
• Versign - http://www.versign.com
• U.S. Post Office - http://www.ups.gov
• CommerceNet - http//www.commerce.net
– certificates contain
• public key
• e-mail
• full name

• Digital certificates are secure

– cannot be forged nor modified
24
 Digital Certificates
• Process to create Digital Certificate
– User generates public/private pair
– User creates and sends a certificate
request
• contains: identifying information and user’s
public key
– CA verifies this information
– CA creates a certificate containing user’s
public key and information
– CA creates message digest from
certificate and signs it with CA’s private
key
– This a signed certificate

25
 Digital Certificates
• Using a Digital Certificate
– before sending a secure message
sender requests a signed certificate
from receiver
– sender decrypts signed certificate
with CA’s known public key to
obtain message digest of info and
public key provided to CA by
receiver
– sender creates a message digest of
public key and info provided by the
receiver for sender’s use
– sender compare the message digests
if they match then receiver is
validated.

26
 Digital Certificates
• Types of Digital Certificates
– site certificates
• used to authenticate web servers
– personal certificates
• used to authenticate individual users
– software publishers certificates
• used to authenticate executables
– CA certificates
• used to authenticate CA’s public keys
– All certificates have the common
format standard of X.509v3

27
 Secure Channels
• Encrypted Traffic may use
– Symmetric Key
– Public/Private Key
• Negotiated Secure Session
– Secure Socket Layer (SSL)
– Transport Layer Security (TLS)
– SSL or TLS provides these services
• Authenticate users and servers
• Encryption to hide transmitted data -
symmetric or asymmetric
• Integrity to provide assurance that data has not
been altered during transmission
– SSL or TLS require certificates to be
issued by a CA

28
 Secure Channels (con’t)
• Internet Tunnels
– virtual network circuit across the
Internet between specified remote
sites
– uses an encrypting router that
automatically encrypts all traffic
that traverses the links of the
virtual circuit
• Tunneling Protocols
– PPTP by Microsoft -
http://www.microsoft.com
– Layer 2 Forwarding (L2F) by
Cisco - http://www.cisco.com
– L2TP (combines PPTP and L2F) -
http://www.ietf.com
29
 Secure Sockets Layer
• SSL History
– Competitor to S-HTTP
– S-HTTP an extension of HTTP
– General purpose encryption
system using symmetric
encryption
– S-HTTP only encrypts Web
protocols
– Three versions v1.0, v2.0 and
v3.0
• SSL v3.0 implemented in Netscape
3.0 and Internet Explorer 3.0 and
higher
• SSL v3.0 supports Diffie-Hellman
anonymous key exchange and
Fortezza smart card

30
 Secure Sockets Layer

• SSL Characteristics
– Operates at the TCP/IP transport
layer
– Encrypts (decrypts) input from
application (transport) layer
– Any program using TCP can be
modified to use SSL connections
– SSL connection uses a dedicated
TCP/IP socket (e.g. port 443 for
https or port 465 for ssmtp)

31
 Secure Sockets Layer
• SSL Characteristics
– SSL is flexible in choice of which
symmetric encryption, message
digest, and authentication
algorithms can be used
– When SSL client makes contact
with SSL server they try to pick
strongest encryption methods they
have in common.
– SSL provides built in data
compression
• compress first then encrypt

32
 Secure Sockets Layer
• SSL Characteristics
– When SSL connection established
browser-to-server and server-to-
browser communications are
encrypted. This includes:
• URL of requested document
• Contents of the document
• Contents of browser forms
• Cookies sent from browser to server
• Cookies sent from server to browser
• Contents of HTTP header
• But NOT particular browser to
particular server
– socket addresses not encrypted
– can use proxy server for privacy

33
 Secure Sockets Layer
• Establishing an SSL Connection
– The client (browser) opens a
connection to server port
– Browser sends “client hello”
message. Client hello message
contains:
• version of SSL browser uses
• ciphers and data compression
methods it supports
– The Server responds with a
“server hello” message. Server
hello message contains
• session id
• the chosen versions for ciphers and
data compression methods.

34
 Secure Sockets Layer
• Establishing an SSL Connection
(con’t.)
– The server sends its certificate
• used to authenticate server to client
– Optionally the server may request
client’s certificate
– If requested, client will send its
certificate of authentication
• if client has no certificate then
connection failure
– Client sends a
“ClientKeyExchange” message
• symmetric session key chosen
• digital envelope is created using
server’s public key and contains the
symmetric session key
35
 Secure Sockets Layer
• Establishing an SSL Connection
(con’t.)
– Optionally, if client authentication
is used the client will send a
certificate verify message.
– Server and client send
“ChangeCipherSpec” message
indicating they are ready to begin
encrypted transmission.
– Client and server send “Finished”
messages to each other
• These are a message digest of their
entire conversation up to this point.
• If the digests match then messages
were received without interference.

36
 SSL Connection Setup
Client 1. Client sends ClientHello message
(Browser)
2.Server acknowledges with ServerHello message Server

.
Session Key
3. Server sends its certificate

(4. Server requests client’s certificate)

Server
Certificate

(5. Client sends its certificate)

Server’s Client
public key Certificate Server’s private key

6. Client sends
“ClientKeyExchange” message

Digital envelope

X
(7. Client sends a “Certificate Verify” message)

Digital signature
Session key

8. Both send “ChangeCiperSpec” messages

9. Both send “Finished” messages

37
 Transport Layer Security
TLS
• IETF (Internet Engineering Task
Force) Standard for secure
connection
• Derivative of SSLv3.0
• Uses different digest functions and
different set of encryption
algorithms
• see TLS URL for more details
– http://www.consensus.com/ietf-tls/
• see SSL URL for more details
– WBSRV = home.netscape.com/
• WBSRV/newsref/std/SSL.html
• WBSER/ref/internet-security.html

38
 Application Layer Security

• Secure Electronic Transactions

– SET
• Digital Payment Systems
– First Virtual
– CyberCash
– DigiCash
– Millicent
• Pretty Good Privacy
– PGP: used to secure e-mail
• These are the applications
sender/receiver use to give
secure communication

39
Secure Electronic Transactions
• Cryptographic protocol
• Developed by Visa, Mastercard,
Netscape, and Microsoft
• Used for credit card transactions
on the Web
• Provides
– Authentication of all parties in
transaction
– Confidentiality: transaction is
encrypted to foil eavesdroppers
– Message integrity: not possible to
alter account number or
transaction amount
– Linkage: attachments can only be
read by 3rd party if necessary
40
Secure Electronic Transactions
• SET protocol supports all
features of credit card system
– Cardholder registration
– Merchant registration
– Purchase requests
– Payment authorizations
– Funds transfer (payment capture)
– Chargebacks (refuns)
– Credits
– Credit reversals
– Debit card transactions
• SET can manage
– real-time & batch transactions
– installment payments
41
Secure Electronic Transaction
1. Customer browses and decides to purchase

2. SET sends order and payment information

Customer Merchant
7. Merchant completes order

3. Merchant forwards
payment information
9. Issuer sends credit card to bank
bill to customer 8. Merchant captures
transaction

6. Bank authorizes
payment

4. Bank checks with

issuer for payment
authorization
Bank Bank
5. Issuer authorizes
payment

Customer’s bank Merchant’s bank

“Issuer”

42
 Securing Private Networks
• Minimize external access to LAN
• Done by means of firewalls and
proxy servers
• Firewalls provide a secure interface
between an “inner” trusted network
and “outer” untrusted network
• every packet to and from inner and
outer network is “processed”
• Firewalls require hardware and
software to implement
• Three main hardware architectures
– dual-homed host
– screened gateway
– screened subnet gateway
43
Access Security Threats
• Access Control
– Threats
• Webjacking: site vandalism
– Countermeasures
• User Authentication
• User Authorization
• Denial of Service
– Threat
• Unable to user server resources
• Type of DOS Attacks
– Counter Measures (limited)
• Firewalls
• System Configuration

44
 Access Control

• User authentication
– process used to identify user who
accesses a web server
– determines legitimate user
– Generally referred to as access
control
• User authorization
– once user authenticated specifies
what server resources that user
may access
– resources are: files, scripts, and
directories

45
 User Authentication
• Several type of access control
– Based on IP address
• validates web browser based on its
host’s IP address
– Based on Domain Name
• validates web browser based on its
host’s domain name
– Based on user name and password
• User of browser is validated on basis of
user ID and its associated password
– Based on client certificates
• remote user is issued a secure certificate
to use as a digital signature
– Based on network security protocols
• solves validation problems associated
with accessing via LAN and WAN
• e.g. Kerberos and DCE
46
 Authentication based on host
IP address and/or DNS name
• Screen browsers based on their
source IP address, Domain Name,
network,or subnetworks
• Advantages
– easy to set up
– not likely to be incorrectly configured
• Disadvantages
– difficult to grant access to users who
migrate
– difficult hand DHCP protocol and Web
proxies
– security issues of
• DNS spoofing
• IP spoofing
47
Countermeasures to DNS Spoofing

• DNS Spoofing
– Attacker assumes control if DNS
host/name lookup system
• Counter by
– Paranoid DNS checking
• Upon receiving packet from browser
server uses that source IP address to
make two DNS requests
• First resolves IP address to get a
Domain Name
• Returned domain name used to find
its IP address
• if domain name correlates with IP
address then legitimate remote host
– Use a firewall’s DNS lookup
48
Countermeasures to IP Spoofing

• IP spoofing requires technical

expertise
• Uses source routing protocol
– appears as if request originates
from within LAN
– can be used to insert CGI script or
modify OS
• Prevented by
– configuring routers and firewalls
to reject connections using source
routing protocol
– configure the server’s operating
system to reject connections using
source routing

49
Authentication Based on User ID
and Password
• Requires user to provide protected
information in order to be
authenticated
• Advantages
– Authenticates users not hosts
– Users can migrate from host to host
– No problems with Web proxies or
DHCP
• Disadvantages
– Users share passwords, forget
passwords, do not keep passwords
private, or choose poor passwords
– passwords can be “sniffed” if
transmitted over a network
50
Authentication Based on User ID
and Password

• Countermeasures to disadvantages
– Users share passwords, forget
passwords, do not keep passwords
private, or they choose poor passwords
• User education
• Chose hard passwords but easy to
remember

51
Authentication Based on User ID
and Password
• Countermeasures to disadvantages
– passwords can be “sniffed” if
transmitted over a network
• Basic authentication is carryout in plain
text but coded in Base 64 MIME -
HTTP/1.0
• Can be intercepted and decoded
• Since HTTP protocol stateless every
access to protected resource needs to be
authenticated
• Basic Authentication process occurs
frequently hence more opportunity to be
sniffed.
– Use secure transmissions
• HTTP/1.1 uses Digest Authentication
process
• Use encrypted communications e.g. SSL
connection 52
 Client Based Certificate System

• Certificates
– when user logs on (presents their
certificate) the authentication server
verifies the certificate is valid by
opening it with the CA’s public key
– certificate contains users public key
and personal information.
– Server sends a challenge to the user -
a one-time value the user signs with
their private key
– Server then signs the same value with
its copy of the user’s private key
– If the signatures match then user is
authenticated

53
 Other Forms of Access Control
• Kerberos authentication model
– Uses a secure “key server”
– Once user authenticated free to use any
resources of the system
– All transmissions are encrypted
• Distributed Computing Environment
– DCE is designed by Open Software
Foundation
– Similar to Kerberos authentication
model
• Two Factor Authentication
• need something you have - ATM card
• need something you know - PIN number

54
Other Forms of Access Control
• Smart Card Type
– token access device that has
information that is in sync with
server information (e.g. counter,
time, random number generator,
etc.)
– “One time pad” of user name and
password

55
 Denial of Service
• Some Types of Attack
– TCP/IP SYN attack
• To set TCP/IP connection use a three
step “handshake” protocol
– client requests
– server acknowledges and waits
– client acknowledges
• if no client acknowledgement or
many client requests then server
overwhelmed.
– PING of Death
• many clients “ping” server
– Flood server with URL requests
• either one client or many in parallel
• DDOS attack

56
 Denial of Service
• Countermeasures to DOS
– Minimal counter measures after
attack has started
• DOS attacks require client(s) to
carry requests
• locate source(s) of requests and
terminate those processes
– Countermeasures prior to attack
• prevent attacks by making sure all
hosts a going to be used legitimately
• requires securing all remote hosts -
not likely
• e.g. DDOS: number of freeware
programs that when run will create
SYN flooding attack make sure
remote host does not run this
program.

57