LITERARY PROSE AND DRAMA

This chapter presents different critical literary views and theories on stylistics.

Pre- Competency Checklist

At the end of this chapter, the student is expected to review prose genres, literary views and theories,
and devices/ characteristics in the light of stylistic study and discuss a survey of prose authors, their
unique styles and purposes of writing such texts.

Learning Resources

The content of this chapter was taken from various resources and the student is advised to visit these
references for further reading.

1. https://penandthepad.com/dramatic-techniques-literature- 8618589.html

2. https://zenodo.org/recor

Prose and Dramatic Techniques

Literary techniques are used in literature for a variety of purposes. Certain literary techniques are
used to increase the dramatic tension in a novel or short story. This can be done by placing the
characters in time-sensitive situations, diverting the reader's attention or appealing directly to the
reader's emotion to elicit sympathy for the main character.

a. Cliff-hanger

The cliff-hanger was popularized with serialized fiction and occurs when characters are left in
precipitous situations, or have a revelation, as an episode of the serial ends. For example, at the end
of an episode of Thomas Hardy's 1873 serial novel "A Pair of Blue Eyes," a main character is left
literally hanging off a cliff.

b. Foreshadowing

Foreshadowing, also referred to as Chekhov's gun or formal patterning, is a literary technique in

which a reference is made to something that will play an important role in future events of the
story. Foreshadowing can be as subtle as an unrelated reference to a loaded gun on the wall or
occur through the use of an oracle, as in Sophocles' oracles in "Oedipus the King."

c. Pathos

Pathos is a literary technique in which the author directly appeals to the emotion and imagination
of the reader to elicit sympathy for a character in the story or the writer's perspective. For instance,
Charlotte Bronte uses pathos in "Jane Eyre" when the protagonist must leave her lover for moral
reasons as soon as their affair begins.

d. Plot Twist

A plot twist occurs when a sudden, unexpected change happens that has a direct impact on the
outcome of the story. A plot twist can occur during any portion of the narrative, but it also
frequently happens as a surprise ending.

e. Ticking Clock Scenario

The ticking clock scenario elicits dramatic tension by placing a character in a dangerous, or
otherwise intense situation, in which time is of the essence. As time passes, the stakes of the
outcome of the story are raised, increasing dramatic tension.

f. Red Herring

A red herring is a literary technique in which the reader's attention is drawn to insignificant details
in order to divert attention from what is actually occurring in the plot. The red herring is commonly
used in mystery fiction and can lead to a plot twist at the end of the work of literature.

STYLISTIC ANALYSIS OF PROSE

Below is a sample of stylistic analysis of a short story:

Stylistic Analysis of the Short Story “The Tell-Tale Heart”by Edgar Allan Poe
Shamaila Amir

The Literary and Rhetorical Devices in the Story Symbolism: Poe is famous for his use of symbolism.
In most of his poems and short stories he has used symbolism to have an idea of his own views
about various things such as life, love, religion death etc. His work, through use of symbolism,
clearly mirrors his opinions. (Phillips, 2008) In the story he has used various things which carry
symbolic significance.

The Old man’s Eye:

The eye is a symbol of narrator‟s paranoia and insanity as there was no obvious reason to kill the
old man. The narrator only wanted to get rid of the eye. “One of his eyes resembled that of a
vulture.” The eye also indicates less visual clarity and simplicity of the old man, “…a pale blue eye,
with a f ilm over it” that he generally did not trust people. Eyes are the windows to the soul and the
narrator describes it as the eye of a vulture. Vultures, which feed upon the dead, are always present
and diligent and see everything, symbolizing penetration. He is frightened that the old man will see
deep into his fears. (Turner, 2013)
The eye, as the conscience of the narrator, knows well about his evil plans and pricks him from time
to time, but he does not follow his conscience’s path and decides to destroy it. He connects old
man‟s eye with an image of death when he calls it vulture’s eye. “Whenever it fell upon me, my
blood ran cold . . . .” The eye further has been described in separation from the old man because he
is a kind man himself and this separation has been done by the narrator in his extreme insanity
because when it is separated, it becomes an object which should be murdered. The eye is not the
reason of narrator‟s insanity. He is already mad, not aware of the fact that insanity makes him to
interpret the abnormal-looking eye in a wrong way. In his confusion, he needs to get rid of old
man‟s sight. The narrator is not wise either as he claims to be because he is unable to see virtues in
the old man. What he sees is only eye as a murderous hallucination and he is driven made when
lantern‟s light falls on that eye. In the end, his inability to see clearly results in his own betrayal. In
his obsessive blindness, he calls policemen villains and proves that he is as evil as the old man‟s eye
(Literary devices in “The Tell - Tale Heart, 2017).

The Watch:
Watch is visual and auditory representation of time, used several times symbolized as the
approaching death. The narrator has full control over the time of old man‟s death and that is why
he compares himself to a watch's minute hand. Watch represents the journey towards death
whether it be a watch itself, a death watch in the wall, the period of seven days, or the many times
the narrator describes how “very, very slowly” he moved (ibid.).

The Lantern:
The Lantern has been mentioned as a counter to darkness as well as a source to light to see the evil
in its full force. The narrator finally kills the old man once the light is fully shed upon his evil eye
because he has seen the full force of the eye. If the eye is a representation of narrator‟s evil or
insanity, he must destroy that eye which is a reflection of him. The lantern also represents the truth
that the old man was never evil (ibid.).

The Bed and the Bedroom:

A bedroom is a place to feel safe where no threat is present but for Poe a bedroom is a place of
murder and the bed is a weapon (ibid.).

Midnight:
Midnight is the darkest hour and enforces the evil tone of the story. As dark is associated with evil,
the story is about doing evil things at evil hour. As it is still dark at 4‟ O clock in the morning as
midnight, that indicates that midnight is not only reflecting the evil actions but evil inside the
narrator himself (ibid.).

Bell:
The bell represents the end of the old man and end of the narrator‟s sanity also. It also represents
the end of the narrator‟s quest. Poe also wrote a poem about bells and the theme of that poem was
life, being young, growing old and finally dying (ibid.).

The Heartbeat:
It symbolizes the narrator‟s guilt or fear which ultimately torments him to the point that he admits
the murder. He thinks it is the heartbeat of the old man he is hearing but actually his own heart,
beating after the old man is suffocated, dismembered and then shoved under floorboards. As a
symbol of narrator's insanity, the beating heart might only exist in his imagination not in real. The
use of short sentences by Poe also creates a rhythm like a heartbeat (ibid.)

Amplification:
The amplification, repeating of a word or phrase adding more detail to it so that it might not go
unnoticed otherwise, is found in the story: “I talked more quickly –more vehemently; but the noise
steadily increased. I arose and argued about trifles, in a high key and with violent gesticulations; but
the noise steadily increased.” Through using “but the noise steadily increased,” the narrator is
trying to convince about his sanity. He is however he is not able to convince anybody as the story
goes on. He merely delves deeper into insanity (Anastasiia, 2005).
Apophasis:
Apophasis, which asserts or emphasizes something apparently by ignoring or denying, it occurs
throughout the short story because the narrator is trying to deny his madness (ibid.). “TRUE! –
nervous–very, very dreadfully nervous I had been and am; but why will you say that I am mad? The
disease had sharpened my senses –not destroyed –not dulled them. Above all was the sense of
hearing acute. I heard all things in the heaven and in the earth. I heard many things in hell. How,
then, am I mad? Hearken! and observe how healthily –how calmly I can tell you the whole story.”

Epithet:
Another rhetorical device which is found in the story is epithet which is an adjective or adjective
phrase and names an important characteristic of a character. Thus the adjective phrase “dreadfully
nervous” is naming the important characteristic of the narrator (ibid.).

Parenthesis:
Parenthesis, the use of words into text, is to elaborate something. It is found in the story as, “I undid
the lantern-oh, so cautiously – cautiously (for the hinges creaked) –I undid it just so much that a
single thin ray fell upon the vulture eye.” Poe has used parenthesis to explain the narrator‟s reason
for using lantern so cautiously (ibid.). “His room was as black as pitch with the thick darkness (for
the shutters were close fastened, through fear of robbers), and so I knew that he could not see the
opening of the door, and I kept pushing it on steadily, steadily.” Thus Poe is explaining the reason of
being so dark in the room and also some additional information about the victim (ibid.).

Rhetorical questions:
Rhetorical questions are not answered by the writer, but they their answers are clear. Usually the
answer to a rhetorical question is only yes or no. These questions are used to give emphasis or
provoke or simply to drive conclusion from the facts available (ibid.). “Would a madman have been
so wise as this?” “Why would you say that I am mad?” “For what had I to fear?” Answers to these
questions are very clear that the narrator who claims to be sane is actually mad (ibid.).

Hyperbole:
The use of hyperbole, an exaggeration, helps to understand the mind process of a person who is
completely mad. He says, “I heard all things in the heaven and in the earth. I heard many things in
hell”, “It took me an hour to place my whole head…”, “For a whole hour I did not move a
muscle…”(ibid.).

Metaphor:
Metaphor is a comparison of two unlike things saying one thing is something else not using like or
as. The eye of the old man resembled a vulture‟s eye. This comparison shows that narrator‟s scary
feeling about the eye. As the vulture is associated with evil in most of the literature, the narrator
thought that it was the Evil eye. Later the movement of the narrator compared with “A watch's
minute hand” shows how cautiously he was opening the bedroom door (ibid.).

Anaphora:
Anaphora is such word or phrase which is repeated to impart emphasis, unity and balance, at the
beginning of a clause (ibid.). In “The Tell-Tale Heart,” anaphora has been used many times: “I heard
all things in the heaven and in the earth. I heard many things in hell.” “With what caution–with what
foresight, with what dissimulation, I went to work!” “He had been trying to fancy them causeless,
but could not. He had been saying to himself,”“It is nothing but the wind in the chimney; it is only a
mouse crossing the floor.” “It is merely a cricket which has made a single chirp.”“It grew louder –
louder– louder.” “Yes he was stone, stone dead,”“How stealthily, stealthily….”“Slowly – very very
slowly,”“steadily, steadily” “They heard! –they suspected! –they KNEW! – they were making a
mockery of my horror!” The anaphoric use of words helps to intensify the situation and makes the
atmosphere more intense and frightful. The reader waits for the next lines and events and very
deeply understands the narrator‟s state of mind and his nervousness. Poe uses repetitions at the
beginning of the story to show tension while insanity at the end of it. In this way both style and
content mirror each other through use of anaphora first in the beginning and then at the end.
Within the story, the use of repetitions creates a frenzied tone that makes it clear that the narrator
is not stable mentally. He even does not tell what he did to hide his crime. His repetition of “no” tells
that he erased the old man completely. “There was nothing to wash out–no stain of any kind–no
blood-spot whatever” (ibid.).

Personification:
Personification is when an animal, object or idea is given human characteristics by the author. In
this short story, Death is personified as a person, “All in vain; because Death is approaching him,
had stalked with his black shadow before him, and enveloped his victim.” This personification has
helped to develop the mood. It further tells that the narrator is extremely afraid of dying and
considers Death‟s victim powerless in its hand. The unknown disease he is suffering from may be
the fear of death. Moreover, the “Evil eye” is also a personification of the eye because eye cannot be
evil (ibid.).

Simile:
Simile is a comparison between two unlike things. It uses words “like”“as”. The ray and thread
comparison has been made using “like”: “So I opened it–you cannot imagine how stealthily,
stealthily–until at length a single dim ray like the thread of the spider shot out from the crevice and
fell upon the vulture eye.”
The comparison of heartbeat to a drumbeat has been done using “as” in “It increased my fury as the
beating of a drum stimulates the soldier into courage.” The comparison of darkness with pitch is
done with regards to the bedroom of the old man as in, “His room was as black as pitch with the
thick darkness. . . .”(ibid.).

Flashback:
Flashback means to take the readers back into past by interrupting ongoing scene to give
background information. From this point of view the whole story is a flashback as the narrator is
confessing his crime. “…observe how healthily .. how calmly, I can tell you the whole story” (ibid.).

Foreshadowing:
Foreshadowing is the hints and clues that are provided by the write that suggest future events in a
story. It is used to create suspense in the story: “But ere long, I feel myself getting pale and wished
them gone. My head ached, and I fancied a ringing in my ear….”“and so by degrees, very gradually, I
made up my mind to take the life of the old man, and thus rid myself of the eye forever.”
Foreshadowing clues in the story hint that the narrator killed the old man out of paranoia: “I have
told you that I am nervous: so I am.” “I smiled - for what had I to fear?” “It was a low, dull, quick
sound - much such a sound as a watch makes when enveloped in cotton.”

Paradox:
Paradox is an absurd and contradictory statement that can be true. “I was never kinder to the old
man than during the whole week before I killed him” (ibid.).
Alliteration:
Alliteration is repetition of same sounds and words with less distance between: “Hearken! and
observe how healthily, how calmly, I can tell you the whole story.” “Meanwhile, the hellish tattoo of
the heart increased.” “It is the beating of his hideous heart!”(ibid.).

Irony:
Irony means when opposite of what is expected happens. In “The Tell-Tale Heart” Poe has used
many types of irony successfully to depict the events of the story. After killing the old man, the
narrator hides his heart beneath the f loorboards along with rest of the body parts. When the police
arrive, the guilt of killing causes his own undoing, and here irony is when he admits killing of the
old man (Ramirez, 2005).
Verbal irony means that a character knowingly exaggerates something but in fact he means
something else. The verbal irony depicts that he was “never kinder to the old man than during the
whole week” before killing him. He calls himself calm, logical and sane but in fact he is really insane
and agitated who confesses his crime as a reaction to ticking sound of the old man‟s heart beat as
he claims. Thus through his words he claims he is not insane but through his actions it is clear that
he is insane. At the end of the story another example of verbal irony is present when agitated by the
ticking sound he shrieks, “Villains”…“Dissemble no more!”(ibid.). The situational irony in “The Tell –
Tale Heart” tells that madmen are not reasonable but in the story justice seemingly bothers him a
lot. He successfully completes the murders and hides that body in such a perfect manner that
policemen do not suspect him. The situation is fully under his control but he merely confesses
because he “hears” the old man‟s heartbeat. The line “I loved the old man. He had never wronged
me. He had never given me insult. For his gold I had no desire” also depict situational irony because
he only wanted to kill the old man due to his own madness and nothing else (ibid.). Dramatic irony
means when something happens in the story that is more meaningful to the reader then the
characters because the reader knows something and characters do not know. It is ironical that the
police do not know about the murder while the reader knows (ibid.). The dramatic irony is at its
peak as in the story it reads: “I brought chairs into the room, and desired them here to rest from
their fatigues, while I myself, …placed my own seat upon the very spot beneath which reposed the
corpse of the victim.” Yet it is that the policemen remain unaware and have no suspect on the
criminal. Also in the beginning, the reader becomes aware of the fact that the narrator is insane but
the narrator himself claims that he is not mad. “But why will you say that I am mad? The disease has
sharpened my senses” (ibid.).

LITERARY POETRY STYLISTICS

This chapter presents different literary genres used on Poetry. It will also present different devices
and techniques to add more color to one’s poem.

Pre- Competency Checklist

At the end of this chapter, the student is expected to review poetry genres, language, devices/
techniques, and meaning in the light of stylistic study and discuss a survey of poetry authors, their
unique styles and purposes of writing such poems.
Learning Resources

The content of this chapter was taken from various resources and the student is advised to visit
these references for further reading.

1. Pangilinan, Estelita C. and Myrna J. Dilig. 1991. Speech and Drama. Manila: National Bookstore.

2. http://www.lancaster.ac.uk/fass/projects/stylistics/sa1/example.htm

3. https://www.masterclass.com/articles/poetry-101-learn-about- poetry-different-types-of-
poems-and-poetic-devices-with-examples

Explore

15 Types of Poetic Forms

From sonnets and epics to haikus and villanelles, learn more about 15 of literature’s most enduring
types of poems

1. Blank verse. Blank verse is poetry written with a precise meter— almost always iambic
pentameter—that does not rhyme.
2. Rhymed poetry. In contrast to blank verse, rhymed poems rhyme by definition, although their
scheme varies.
3. Free verse. Free verse poetry is poetry that lacks a consistent rhyme scheme, metrical pattern,
or musical form.
4. Epics. An epic poem is a lengthy, narrative work of poetry. These long poems typically detail
extraordinary feats and adventures of characters from a distant past.
5. Narrative poetry. Similar to an epic, a narrative poem tells a story. Henry Wadsworth
Longfellow’s “The Midnight Ride of Paul Revere” and Samuel Taylor Coleridge’s “The Rime of the
Ancient Mariner” exemplify this form.
6. Haiku. A haiku is a three-line poetic form originating in Japan. The first line has five syllables, the
second line has seven syllables, and the third line again has five syllables.
7. Pastoral poetry. A pastoral poem is one that concerns the natural world, rural life, and
landscapes. These poems have persevered from Ancient Greece (in the poetry of Hesiod) to Ancient
Rome (Virgil) to the present day (Gary Snyder).
8. Sonnet. A sonnet is a 14 line poem, typically (but not exclusively) concerning the topic of love.
Sonnets contain internal rhymes within their 14 lines; the exact rhyme scheme depends on the style
of a sonnet.
9. Elegies. An elegy is a poem that reflects upon death or loss. Traditionally, it contains themes of
mourning, loss, and reflection.
10. Ode. Much like an elegy, an ode is a tribute to its subject, although the subject need not be dead
—or even sentient, as in John Keats’ “Ode on a Grecian Urn”.
11. Limerick. A limerick is a five-line poem that consists of a single stanza, an AABBA rhyme
scheme, and whose subject is a short, pithy tale or description.
12. Lyric poetry. Lyric poetry refers to the broad category of poetry that concerns feelings and
emotion. This distinguishes it from two other poetic categories: epic and dramatic.
13. Ballad. A ballad (or ballade) is a form of narrative verse that can be either poetic or musical. It
typically follows a pattern of rhymed quatrains. From John Keats to Samuel Taylor Coleridge to Bob
Dylan, it represents a melodious form of storytelling.
14. Soliloquy. A soliloquy is a monologue in which a character speaks to him or herself, expressing
inner thoughts that an audience might not otherwise know. Soliloquies are not definitionally
poems, although they often can be—most famously in the plays of William Shakespeare.
15. Villanelle. A nineteen-line poem consisting of five tercets and a quatrain, with a highly
specified internal rhyme scheme. Originally a variation on a pastoral, the villanelle has evolved to
describe obsessions and other intense subject matters, as exemplified by Dylan Thomas, author of
villanelles like “Do Not Go Gentle Into That Good Night.”