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1.COMPUTER
ORGANIZATION
Content

▪ 1.1 Turing model

▪ 1.2 Von Neumann model

▪ 1.3 Computer generations

▪ 1.4 Subsystems and the role of subsystems

▪ 1.5 Central Processing Unit

▪ 1.6 Memory: main memory and cache memory

▪ 1.7 Input/Output subsystems

▪ 1.8 Different architectures

Objectives

After studying this chapter, the student should be able to: ▪ Define the Turing
model of a computer.

▪ Define the von Neumann model of a computer.

▪ Describe the three components of a computer: hardware, data, andsoftware.

▪ List topics related to computer hardware.

▪ List topics related to data.

▪ List topics related to software.

▪ Give a short history of computers.

1-TURINGMODEL
1. Introduction

▪ The idea of a universal

computational device was first described
by Alan Turing in 1937.

▪ All computation could be performed by a

special kind of a machine, now called a
Turing machine.
▪ The model on the actions that people perform when involved in
computation.

▪ Actions into a model for a computational machine that

has really changed the world.
2. Data processors

▪ A computer acts as a black box that accepts input data, processes thedata,
and creates output
▪ This model could represent a specific-purpose computer (or processor)thatis
data (Figure 1.1).
designed to do a single job, such as controlling the temperatureofa
building or controlling the
▪ However, computers, as the term is used today, are
fuel usage in a car.
general-purpose
machines. They can do many different types of tasks
 Figure -1.1 A single-purpose computing
machine
3. Programmable data processors

An extra element is added to the specific computing machine: the program. ▪ A program is a set of

instructions that tells the computer what to do withdata.

The output data depends on the combination of two factors: the input dataandtheprogram.

▪ With the same input data, we can generate different output if we change theprogram.

▪ Similarly, with the same program, we can

generate different outputs if
wechangethe input data.
 Figure -1.2 : A computer based on the Turing model: programmable dataprocessor
4. The universal Turing machine

▪ A universal Turing machine, a machine

that can do any computation if the
appropriate program is provided, was the
first description of a modern computer.

▪ It can be proved that a very powerful

computer and a universal Turing machine
can compute the same thing

▪ A universal Turing machine is capable of

Figure - 1.3
computing anything that is computable. ProgrammedDataProcessor (PDP-1)
2-VON NEUMANNMODEL
1. Introduction

▪ The modern microcomputer has roots going back

to USA in the 1940’s.

▪ Of the many researchers, the Hungarian

born mathematician, John von Neumann
(1903-57), is worthy of special mention.
▪ He developed a very basic model for
computers which we are still using today.

Figure - 1.4. Johnvon

Neumann (1903-57).
Progenitor of the modern,
electronic PC.
2. Von Neumann Model Subsystems

Von Neumann model is divided into 4 subsystems :

▪ Memory is the storage area. This is where programs and data are storedduringprocessing

▪ Arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is where calculation and logical operations takeplace▪ Control unit

controls the operations of the memory, ALU, and the input/output

▪ The input subsystem accepts input data and the programfromoutside thecomputer, while the output
subsystem sends the result of processing to
theoutsideworld.
 Figure 1.5 The Von Neumann model
Subsystems
3. The stored program concept

▪ The von Neumann model states that

the program must be stored in
memory.

▪ This is totally different from the architecture of

early computers in
which only the data was stored in
memory: the programs for their task
were implemented by manipulating a
set of switches or by changing the
wiring system.
▪ The memory of modern computers
Figure 1.6 The Manchester MarkI,the
hostsbothaprogramandits
corresponding data first stored-programdigital computer,1949.
4. Sequential execution of instructions

▪ A program is made of a finite number of

instructions. In this model, the control unit
fetches one instruction from memory, decodes it,
then executes it.

▪ One instruction may request the control unit to jump to some previous or
following instruction,
but this does not mean that the instructions are not executed sequentially.
 Figure 1.7 Fetches Executecycle
History of Computers
 Figure 1.7
History of Computers
3 - COMPUTERGENERATIONS
1. Overview
 Figure 1.8
Generation of Computers
2. First Generation (1945-1956)

▪ First Generation Computers were

working during the 1940-1956 with proper
maintenance of Vacuum Tubes on those
 computers. Vacuum Tubes most useful to process the data in memory.

▪ First generation computers use more

power from electricity and that
produce high heat.

▪ Those devi ces vulnerable to the

attacks and get malfunctions.
Figure 1.9 First GenerationComputers
3. Second Generation Computers (1959-1965)

▪ Second-generation computers (roughly

1959–1965) used transistors instead
of vacuum tubes. This reduced the size
of computers, as well as their cost, and
made them affordable to small and
medium-size corporations.

▪ Two high-level programming languages,

FORTRAN and COBOL (see Chapter 9),
were invented and made programming
easier.
 Figure 1.10 Second Generation
Computers
4. Third Generation Computers (1965-1975)

▪ The invention of the integrated

circuit (transistors, wiring, and
other components on a single
chip) reduced the cost and size of
computers even further.
▪ Minicomputers appeared on the
ma r k e t . Ca nne d p r o g r ams ,
popularly known as software
packages, became available.
▪ A small corporation could buy a
 p a c k a g e , f o r e x a m p l e f o r accounting, instead of writing its
own program.

Figure 1.11 Third GenerationComputers

5. The fourth generation (1975–1985)

▪ The fourth generation (approximately

1975–1985) saw the appearance of
microcomputers.
▪ The first desktop calculator, the Altair
8800, became available in 1975.

▪ Advances in the electronics industry

allowed whole computer subsystems to
fit on a single circuit board.
 Figure 1.12 The fourthGeneration
Computers
6. Fifth generation (Present and Beyond)

▪ Fifth Generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, arestill indevelopment, though
there are some applications such as voice recognition, that ▪ The ability to
are being used today.
translate a foreign language is also moderately possible withfifth ▪ The goal of
generation computers.
fifth generation computing is to develop devices that respondto
natural language input and are capable
of learning and self-organization.

Figure 1.13 The Fith Generation

4 - SUBSYSTEMSANDTHEROLEOF
SUBSYSTEMS
INTRODUCTION

▪ We can divide the parts that make up a computer into three broadcategories or subsystem: the
central processing unit (CPU) , the mainmemory, and the input/output subsystem.
 Figure 1.18 Computer hardware
(subsystems)
5 - CENTRAL PROCESSINGUNIT
Introduction

▪ The central processing unit (CPU) performs operations on data.

▪ In most architectures It has three parts: an arithmetic logic unit (ALU),acontrol unit, and a set of
registers

Figure
1.19 Central processing unit (CPU)
The arithmetic logic unit (ALU)

▪ The arithmetic logic unit (ALU)

performs logic, shift, and arithmetic
operations on data.

▪ Logic operations: NOT, AND, OR, and XOR.

▪ Shift operations: logic shift operations

and arithmetic shift operations

▪ Arithmetic operations: arithmetic

Figure 1.20 Constructionofan
operations on integers and reals. ALU
Registers
▪ Registers are fast stand-alone storage
locations that hold data temporarily.
Multiple registers are needed to
facilitate the operation of the CPU.
 Figure 1.21 Constructionof an
Register
The control unit

▪ The control unit controls the operation of each subsystem. Controllingisachieved through
signals sent from the control unit to other subsystems.
Figure 1.22 Using an control unit
 6-MAIN MEMORY
Introduction

▪ Main memory consists of a collection of storage locations, eachwithaunique

identifier, called an address.

▪ Data is transferred to and from memory in groups of bits calledwords.

 Figure 1.23 Main memory
Address space

▪ To access a word in memory requires an identifier. Although programmersuse a name to identify

a word (or a collection of words), at the hardwarelevel each word is identified by an address.

▪ The total number of uniquely identifiable locations in memory is calledtheaddress space. For
example, a memory with 64 kilobytes andawordsizeof 1 byte has an address space that
ranges from0 to 65,535.

Table 6.1 Memory units

Examples ▪ Example 5.1 ▪ A computer has 128 MB of memory. Eachword in this

computer is eight bytes. Howmany bits are needed to

address anysingle
word in memory?

▪ Example 5.2
▪ A computer has 32 MB (megabytes) of memory.
How many bits are needed to address any
single byte in memory?

▪ Solution The memory address space is 32 MB,

▪ Solution The memory address space is 128MB, which means 227. However, eachwordiseight (23) bytes, which means

that we have224words. This means that we need log2224, or24

bits, to address each word.
or 225 (25 × 220). This means that we need
log2 225, or 25 bits, to address each byte.
Memory types

Two main types of memory exist: RAM and ROM. ▪ Random access memory (RAM)
▪ Read-only memory (ROM)

Memory hierarchy

▪ Computer users need a lot of memory, especially memory that is very fast and inexpensive. This demandis not
always possible to satisfy— very fast memory is usually not cheap. A compromise needs tobemade.

▪ The solution is hierarchical levels of memory.

 Figure 1.24 Hierarchical levels of memory.
Cache memory

▪ Cache memory is faster than main memory, but slower than the CPU and its registers. ▪ Cache memory,

which is normally small in size, is placed between the CPU and main memory.
 Figure 1.25 Hierarchical levels of memory.

7 - INPUT/OUTPUTSUBSYSTEM
Introduction

▪ The input/output (I/O) subsystem in a computer is the collection of devices. T

▪ his subsystem allows a computer to communicate with the outside world and to store programs anddataeven when
the power is off.

▪ Input/output devices can be divided into two broad categories: non-storage and storage devices.
Non-storage & Storage devices

▪ Non-storage devices allow the CPU/memory

▪ Storage devices, although classifiedas I/O
to communicate with the outside world, but they cannot
store information.

devices, can store large amounts of informationto be

retrieved at a later time. They are cheaperthan main referred to as auxiliary storage devices. Wecancategorize
memory, and their contents arenonvolatile—that is, not them as either magnetic or optical.
erased whenthepower is turned off. They are sometimes
Storage devices (Magnetic or Optical)

HDD disk CD-ROM Storage devices

 Figure 1.26 Storage devices
SSD – Solid State Disk

▪ A solid-state drive (SSD uses NAND-based flash

memory, which retains data without power.

▪ It is also known as a solid-state disk or electronic disk,

though it contains no actual "disk" of any kind, nor
motors to "drive" the disks.

Storage devices
 ▪ SSD technology uses electronic interfaces compatible with traditional block
input/output (I/O) hard disk drives,
thus permitting simple replacement in common applications, like SATA Express.

▪ SSDs are about 7 to 8 times more expensive per unit of

storage than HDDs.
Figure 1.27SolidStateDisk

8-
SUBSYSTEMINTERCONNECTI
ON
Introduction

▪ In this section, we explore how these three subsystems (CPU, main memory, and I/O) are interconnected.

▪ The interconnection plays an important role because information needs to be exchanged

betweenthethreesubsystems.
Connecting CPU and memory

▪ The CPU and memory are normally connected by three groups of connections, each called a bus: databus,address
bus and control bus.
 Figure 1.28 CPU and memory
Connecting I/O devices

▪ I/O devices are electromechanical, magnetic, or optical devices andalsooperate at a

much slower speed than the CPU/memory.

▪ There is a need for some sort of intermediary to handle this difference. Input/output devices
are therefore attached to the buses throughinput/output controllers or interfaces.

▪ There is one specific controller for each input/output device

 Figure 1.29 Connecting I/O devices
SCSI controller to connect I/O devices

▪ Small Computer System Interface (SCSI is created in 1984): 32 components

 Figure 1.30 SCSI controller
FireWire controller to connect I/Odevices

▪ IEEE Standard 1394: 400Mbps and 63 devices

Figure 1.31 FireWire controller
USB controller to connect I/O devices
 Figure 1.32 USB controller
Addressing input/output devices

▪ The CPU usually uses the same bus to read data from or write data to main memory and I/Odevice. Theonly
difference is the instruction.
▪ If the instruction refers to a word in main memory, data transfer is between main memory and the CPU. ▪ If the

instruction identifies an I/O device, data transfer is between the I/O device and the CPU. ▪ here are two methods for

handling the addressing of I/O devices: isolated I/O and memory-mappedI/O.

Addressing input/output devices (cont)

Figure 1.33 Addressing input/output
9 - DIFFERENTARCHITECTURES
Introduction

▪ The architecture and organization of computers has gone through many changes inrecent decades.

▪ In this section we discuss some common architectures and organization that differ fromthesimple
computer architecture we discussed earlier.
CISC
▪ CISC stands for complex instruction set computer.
The strategy behind CISC architectures is to have a
large set of instructions, including complex ones.

▪ Programming CISC-based computers is easier than in

other designs because there is a single instruction for
both simple and complex tasks. Programmers,
therefore, do not have to write a set of instructions
to do a complex task.

Figure 1.34 Complex instructionset

computer.
RISC
▪ RISC stands for reduced instruction set computer.
The strategy behind RISC architecture is to have a
small set of instructions that do a minimum
number of simple operations.

▪ Complex instructions are simulated using a subset

of simple instructions. Programming in RISC is
more difficult and time-consuming than in the other
design, because most of the complex instructions are
simulated using simple instructions.

Figure 1.35 Reducedinstructionset

computer.
Pipelining
▪ Modern computers use a technique called pipelining to improve thethroughput (the total
number of instructions performed in eachperiodoftime).

▪ The idea is that if the control unit can do two or three of these phasessimultaneously, the next
instruction can start before the previous oneisfinished.

Figure 1.36 Pipelining technique.

Parallel processing

▪ Traditionally a computer had a single control unit, a single arithmetic logic unit and a single memoryunit. With the
 evolution in technology and the drop in the cost of computer hardware, today we can haveasingle computer with
multiple control units, multiple arithmetic logic units and multiple memoryunits.

▪ This idea is referred to as parallel processing. Like pipelining, parallel processing can improve throughput.

Parallel processing (cont)

 Figure 1.36 SISD organization
Parallel processing (cont)
 Figure 1.37 SIMD organization
Parallel processing (cont)
 Figure 1.38 Parallel processing.
Parallel processing (cont)
Figure 1.38 MIMD organization