Controllers Architecture &

Tunning

By
Rohan Saha
Dept. of Applied Physics , CU
Purpose of Controller Tunning:

• Ensuring stability is one of the primary purposes of controller tuning. Properly

tuned controllers prevent oscillations, instability, or excessive overshoot in the
system's response to disturbances or setpoint changes.

• Optimal controller’s gain help to minimize the control effort required to achieve the
desired control objectives.

• It aims to make the system robust against variations in the process dynamics,
external disturbances, or uncertainties in the system model. Robust tuning ensures
that the control system maintains stability and performance across a range of
operating conditions.

Prepared by Rohan Saha, Dept. Of Applied Physics, CU

Integral Criteria (cost function) of Controller Tunning:

Controller Tunning a minimization process area under the error curve vs time based on its close
loop response. The different error function are considered as:

• Integral Time (Ti):

𝑡
Ti = ‫׬‬0 𝑒 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
• Integral of Absolute Error (IAE):
𝑡
IAE = ‫׬‬0 𝑒 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
• Integral of Squared Error (ISE):
𝑡
ISE = ‫׬‬0 𝑒 2 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
• Integral of Time-weighted Absolute Error (ITAE):
𝑡
ITAE = ‫׬‬0 𝑡. 𝑒 𝜏 𝑑𝜏

Prepared by Rohan Saha, Dept. Of Applied Physics, CU

Feedback Controllers tuning

Probably 80 to 90% of feedback controllers are tuned by instrument

technicians or control engineers based on their previous experience.

For the 10 to 20% of cases where no previous experience exists, or for

personnel without previous experience, there exist several organized
techniques to obtain a “good ballpark figure” close to the “optimum”
settings.

Obtain the characteristics of the process to use these organized

procedures.

Using these characteristics, the tunings are calculated using simple

formulas.

There are two ways to obtain the process characteristics, and

consequently, we divide the tuning procedures into two types: on-line
and off-line
Prepared by Rohan Saha, Dept. Of Applied Physics, CU
Feedback Controllers tuning: Ziegler–Nichols Technique

The Ziegler–Nichols technique is the oldest method for online tuning.

It gives approximate values of the tuning parameters KC , τi, and τd to

obtain approximately a one fourth ( 1) decay ratio response. The procedure
4
is as follows:

➢ 1. With the controller online (in automatic), remove all the

reset (τi= maximum or τi R = minimum) and derivative (τd =
0) modes. Start with a small KC value.

➢ 2. Make a small set point or load change and observe the

response.

➢ 3. If the response is not continuously oscillatory, increase

KC, or decrease PB, and repeat step 2.

➢ 4. Repeat step 3 until a continuous oscillatory response is

obtained Prepared by Rohan Saha, Dept. Of Applied Physics, CU
Feedback Controllers tuning: Ziegler–Nichols Technique

The gain that gives these continuous oscillations is the ultimate

gain, KCU.

The period of the oscillations is called the ultimate period, TU; this
is shown in Fig.

The ultimate gain and the ultimate period are the characteristics of
the process being tuned. The following formulas are then applied:

• For a P controller: KC = 0.5 KCU

0
• For a PI controller: KC = 0.45 KCU, τI = TU/1.2

• For a PID controller: KC = 0.65 KCU, τI = TU/2, τD = TU/8

Figure shows the response of a process with a PI controller tuned by

1
the Ziegler–Nichols method. The figure also shows the meaning of a 4
decay ratio response Prepared by Rohan Saha, Dept. Of Applied Physics, CU
 Feedback Controllers tuning – Process Reaction Curve Method
• This method was developed by Cohen and Coon.

• A step input with magnitude A is used to final control by disconnecting from controller.

𝑦𝑚 𝑠
• The obtained curve is know as process reaction curve and the transfer function, 𝐺𝑃𝑅𝐶 𝑆 = 𝑚 𝑠
= 𝐺𝑓 𝑠 𝐺𝑝 𝑠 𝐺𝑚 𝑠 .
𝑦𝑚 𝑠 𝐾𝑒 −𝑡𝑑𝑠
It is approximated as, 𝐺𝑃𝑅𝐶 𝑆 = 𝑚 𝑠
= 1+𝜏𝑠

Process Reaction Curve

Open loop system response with step input
Where, K = static gain, td = dead time, 𝜏 = time
const.=B/slope(s), B = steady state value of process.
Prepared by Rohan Saha, Dept. Of Applied Physics, CU
The formulas for finding the optimal controller gains from Process Reaction Curve given in the
table below.

𝐾𝑝 𝑇𝑖 𝑇𝑑
P 𝜏 𝑡𝑑
1+
𝐾𝑡𝑑 3𝜏
PI 𝜏 𝑡𝑑 3𝑡
0.9 + 30 + 𝜏𝑑
𝐾𝑡𝑑 12𝜏 𝑡𝑑
20𝑡
30 + 𝜏 𝑑

PID 𝜏 3 𝑡𝑑 6𝑡 4
+ 32 + 𝜏𝑑 𝑡𝑑
𝐾𝑡𝑑 4 4𝜏 𝑡𝑑 2𝑡
8𝑡 11 + 𝜏𝑑
13 + 𝜏𝑑

Prepared by Rohan Saha, Dept. Of Applied Physics, CU

Feedforward Control

Prepared by Rohan Saha, Dept. Of Applied Physics, CU

 Feedforward Control
A feedback controller responds only after it detects a deviation in the value of the controlled output from
its desired set point.

On the other hand, a Feedforward controller detects the disturbance directly and takes an appropriate
control action in order to eliminate its effect on the process output.

Consider the distillation column shown in Fig. The control objective is to keep the distillate concentration
at a desired set point despite any changes in the inlet feed stream.

Prepared by Rohan Saha, Dept. Of Applied Physics, CU

Feedforward Control

The conventional feedback loop, which measures

the distillate concentration and after comparing it
with the desired setpoint, increases or decreases
the reflux ratio.

A feedforward control system uses a different

approach. It measures the changes in the inlet
feed stream (disturbance) and adjusts the reflux
ratio appropriately.
0

Prepared by Rohan Saha, Dept. Of Applied Physics, CU

 Feedforward Control

It directly measures the disturbance to the process

and anticipates its effect on the process output.

Eventually it alters the manipulated input in such a

way that the impact of the disturbance on the process
output gets eliminated.

In other words, where the feedback control action

starts after the disturbance is “felt” through the
changes in process output, the feedforward control
action starts immediately after the disturbance is
“measured” directly.
0
Hence, feedback controller acts in
a compensatory manner whereas the feedforward
controller acts in an anticipatory manner.

Prepared by Rohan Saha, Dept. Of Applied Physics, CU

Design of Feedforward Control

Open-loop process diagram

Process diagram with feedforward controller

0
The process and disturbance transfer
functions are represented
by and respectively. The controlled
output, manipulated input and the
disturbance variable are indicated
Process diagram with as and respectively.
feedforward controller,
sensor and valve Prepared by Rohan Saha, Dept. Of Applied Physics, CU
 Design of Feedforward Control

The process output is represented by

The control objective is to maintain at the desired setpoint .

Hence the eq can be rewritten as
The eq. can be rearranged in the following manner:

For the sake of simplicity, measuring element and final control

element were not considered as parts of the feedforward control
configuration.

In a more generalized case, when such elements are added in the

controller configuration, the resulting control structure takes the
form of Fig beside.

Prepared by Rohan Saha, Dept. Of Applied Physics, CU

 Design of Feedforward Control
A generalized form of controller equation can be written as

and

In case of regulatory problem (disturbance rejection) i.e.

when , the controller should be able to reject the effect of
disturbance and ensure no deviation in the output, i.e. . In
other words,

In case of servo problem (setpoint tracking), i.e. when , the

controller should be able to ensure that output tracks the setpoint,
i.e. . In other words,

Prepared by Rohan Saha, Dept. Of Applied Physics, CU

 Example of Feedforward Control

Consider an overflow type continuous stirred tank

heater shown in Fig .

The fluid inside the tank is heated with steam

whose flow rate is Fst and supplying heat at a rate
of Q to the fluid.
Process without a controller
Temperatures of the inlet and outlet streams
are Ti and T respectively. V is the volume of liquid
which is practically constant in an overflow type
reactor.

A control valve in the steam line indicates that the

steam flow rate can be manipulated in order to
keep the liquid temperature at a desired setpoint.

Temperature of the inlet stream flow is the source

of disturbance (change in Ti ) to the process. Process with feedforward controller
Prepared by Rohan Saha, Dept. Of Applied Physics, CU
 Example of Feedforward Control
A simple energy balance exercise will yield the model equation of the
above process as:

All the variables are assumed to be in the deviation form. Hence,

taking Laplace transform on both sides we obtain:

Process without a controller

The feedforward controller is meant for ensuring .

Hence,
Process with feedforward controller
Prepared by Rohan Saha, Dept. Of Applied Physics, CU
 Example of Feedforward Control

Process without a controller

Hence, one needs to set Fst in such a way that Q amount of
heat as given in eq. is transferred to the process. Fig of
“Process with feedforward controller” represents the
feedforward structure of the controller.

Process with feedforward controller

Prepared by Rohan Saha, Dept. Of Applied Physics, CU
Cascade Control

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Cascade Control

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Cascade Control

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Cascade Control – Flow Control Example

0
0

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Cascade Control – Furnace Example

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Cascade Control – Chemical Reactor Example

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Cascade Control – Block Diagram

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Cascade Control – Closed-loop transfer function

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Cascade Control – Closed-loop Stability

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Cascade Control – Closed-loop Stability

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Cascade Control – Closed-loop Stability

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Cascade Controller Design

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Cascade Controller Design – Direct Synthesis

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Cascade Controller Design – Example

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Conventional Controller Design – Example

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Ratio Control

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Ratio Control:

A ratio controller is a special type of feedforward

controller where disturbances are measured and
their ratio is held at a desired set point by
controlling one of the streams.

The other uncontrolled stream is called wild stream.

The ratio of flow rates of two streams are being

held at a desired ratio by controlling the flow rate of
one stream.

The flow rates are measured through flow 0

transmitters (FTs).

Prepared by Rohan Saha, Dept. Of Applied Physics, CU

Ratio Control:

Prepared by Rohan Saha, Dept. Of Applied Physics, CU

Ratio Control: Traditional approach

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Ratio Control: Traditional approach

Prepared by Rohan Saha, Dept. Of Applied Physics, CU

Ratio Control: Traditional approach

Prepared by Rohan Saha, Dept. Of Applied Physics, CU

Ratio Control: Traditional approach

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Ratio Control: Second approach

Slides Prepared by Rohan Saha, Dept. Of Applied Physics, CU

Ratio Control: Second approach

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Ratio Control:

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Ratio Control:

0
0

0
0
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Ratio Control:

0
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Ratio Control:

Prepared by Rohan Saha, Dept. Of Applied Physics, CU

Split Range Control:

Split-range control is used when a single controller is employed

to control two final-control elements (two valves for example).

In such a system, the controller struggle to keep one controlled

variable at the set point using two manipulated variables. SRC
Typically, split-range control is found in temperature control
applications, but split-range control applications extend far
beyond temperature control.

Prepared by Rohan Saha, Dept. Of Applied Physics, CU

Split Range for Temperature Control Application:

The concept of split-range control is easier to

understand when illustrated using applications
such as a temperature control.

In such an application, the process needs to be

heated or cooled depending of the product
temperature.

The figure shows how the temperature

transmitter, the controller, and the two control
valves are connected for split-range control in a
typical temperature control application.

Prepared by Rohan Saha, Dept. Of Applied Physics, CU

Split Range for Temperature Control Application:
In the diagram above, the 0% to 100% range of the controller output is split in two between the two valves. If the
controller output is between 0% and 50%, it is the cooling valve that operates.

This valve is fully open when the controller output is 0% and fully closed when the controller output is 50%. If the
controller output is between 50% and 100%, it is the heating valve that is in operation.

At 50%, the heating valve starts to open and it is fully open

at 100% of the controller output.

In a split-range control installation, there are different ways

to connect the valves so that they operate on two different
ranges.

In the example above, the current to pressure converters

are used to split the controller output in two ranges.

The first converter responds to a current from 4 mA to 12

mA, while the other operates in a range from 12 mA to 20
mA. 0
When using this type of wiring, no special controller or
configuration is required for split-range control.

Prepared by Rohan Saha, Dept. Of Applied Physics, CU

Split Range Control using Pneumatic Signal:

The figure shows a setup that performs the

same split-range control but, in this case, the
signal from controller is a pneumatic signal. In
such a setup, the two valves are mechanically
different.

The spring/diaphragm actuators of the two

valves are selected so that their ranges of
operation are different.

The spring of the cooling valve is selected to 0

allow the valve to open and close over a range
of 20.7 kPa (3 psi) to 55.2 kPa (8 psi), while the
heating valve closes and opens over a range of
55.2 kPa 8 psi to 89.6 kPa (13 psi).

Prepared by Rohan Saha, Dept. Of Applied Physics, CU

Split Range Control using Pneumatic Signal:

the relationship between the opening of the

valves and the controller output.

Prepared by Rohan Saha, Dept. Of Applied Physics, CU

Dead band for split range control:

The examples above are some of the simplest setups

for split-range control. Of course, a controller
supporting split-range control may support more
complex setups and correct some of the flaws inherent
to split-range control.
One problem that may arise with the setups detailed
above is that the system may switch continuously
between cooling and heating when the controller
output is around 50%.
To avoid continuous oscillation between the cooling 0
and heating modes, a dead band is usually added
between the two ranges.
A dead band can be added, for example, by setting a
range of 0% to 49% for the cooling valve and a range of
51% to 100% for the heating valve.

Prepared by Rohan Saha, Dept. Of Applied Physics, CU

Using split-range to control the input and output of a reactor:

In this example, chemical reactants come into a reactor

via a first control valve that limits the input flow.

Another control valve limits the output flow of the

reactor. To ensure a high-efficiency chemical reaction and
a uniform product, the pressure inside the reactor must
be kept above a given level.

A pressure transmitter reads the pressure in the reactor

and a controller, connected for split-range control,
changes its output to control the pressure inside the
0
reactor.

If the pressure is too low, the controller opens the input

valve. If the pressure is still low, the controller closes the
output valve.

Prepared by Rohan Saha, Dept. Of Applied Physics, CU

Using split-range to control the input and output of a reactor:

The graph shows the opening of the control valves as a

function of the controller output.

For this installation, the controller could also be configured so

that the opening of the control valves overlap at 50% of the
controller output, as shown in 2 nd Figure.

In this case, the output valve is fully open when the controller
output is 0%, both valves are 50% open when the controller 0
output is 50% and, finally, the input valve is fully open and the
output valve is fully closed when the controller output is
100%.

Prepared by Rohan Saha, Dept. Of Applied Physics, CU

Split-range control for a flare application:

Gas flares are common in refinery and

chemical plants.

These devices are mainly used to burn the

excess of flammable gas in a vessel and
prevent an eventual explosion of due to
over-pressure.

When something goes wrong, the flare

system is the insurance against disaster.

Many flare systems rely on split-range

control for the evacuation of the gas.

In a flare application, a fluid or a gas is

processed in a vessel.

The chemical reaction or the physical

condition to which the fluid is exposed
allows obtaining the desired product plus an
0
(undesired) excess of flammable gas.

Prepared by Rohan Saha, Dept. Of Applied Physics, CU

Split-range control for a flare application:

it is a pressure transmitter that determines

if the product is ready and if there is a gas
excess.

The figure shows the opening of the control

valves as a function of the controller output
for this flare application.

If the pressure is low, the controller output

is 0% and both valves are closed to allow
pressure to build up in the vessel and the
formation of the product.

0
Prepared by Rohan Saha, Dept. Of Applied Physics, CU
Split-range control for a flare application:

As the pressure increases, the control valve

allowing the product to exit the vessel and go to the
gas compressor opens.

This valve continues to open until the controller

output reaches 50%.

At this point, the valve is fully open while the flare

valve is still closed.

If the pressure still increases, it indicates to the

controller that there is an excess of gas that must
be evacuated.

Thus, the controller increases its output and the

flare valve starts to open to evacuate the gas and
burn it.

When the controller output reaches 100% both

valves are fully open. 0

Prepared by Rohan Saha, Dept. Of Applied Physics, CU