Matrix

An m by n matrix A is a rectangular array of numbers, real or complex, with m rows and n

columns enclosed in a large pair of either parentheses or brackets or double vertical bar of the
form
 a11 a12 ... ... a1n 
a a22 ... ... a2 n 
A=  21

 ... ... ... ... 

 
am1 am 2 ... ... amm 
is called matrix, where the numbers in the array are called the entries or the elements of the
matrix.
The size or dimension of a matrix are specified by starting the number of rows and the
number of columns it contains. The above matrix consists of m rows and n columns, it is said
to be an m by n (written as m×n) matrix. In the above matrix, the numbers
a11 , a12 ,.......a1n , a21, a22 .........a2 n , am1 , am 2 ,.......amn (i.e., aij where i = 1,2,....., m; j = 1,2,......n ) are
called the entries or the elements of the matrix. The above matrix is also represented as A=
aij mn , where i = 1,.....m; j = 1,....., n.
The m rows of the above matrix are m horizontal n-tuples
(a11, a12 ,....., a1n ), (a21, a22 ,.....a2n , (am1 , am2 ...., amn )) and the n vertical m-tuples are n columns of
the matrix A.
a11  a12  a1n 
a  a  a 
 21  ,  22  , .........,  2n 
     
     
a m1  a m 2  a mn 
Note that the elements aij , called the ij-entry or ij-element, appears in the i-th row and
j-th column.
Matrices whose elements are all real numbers are called real matrices and matrices whose
elements are all complex numbers are called complex matrices.
 
Unit or identity matrix: Let A= a ij be a square matrix of order n. If the entries
aij = 0 for all i  j and aij = 1 for all i = j ,

then the matrix is called unit or identity matrix. Identity matrix of order n is denoted by In or
simply I.

1 0 ... ... 0 
0 1 ... ... 0 

Example : I n = ... ... ... ... ...  is a unit matrix of order n.
... ... ... ... ....
 
0 0 ... .... 1 
The following are the identity matrices of order 1, 2 and 3 respectively.
1 0 0
1 0
I1 = 1, I 2 =   , I 3 = 0 1 0
0 1  0 0 1
Transpose matrix : Let A be an m n matrix. then the matrix of order m n is obtained by
interchanging the rows as columns and the columns as rows is called the transpose of A and it
is denoted by AT or A or A.
   
In other words, if A = aij is an m n matrix, then the matrix AT = a ji of order n  m is
called transpose matrix of A.
1 3 
1 0 2
Example : If A =   , then A = 0 4
T

3 4 6 23 2 6 32

 
Singular matrix : Let A = aij be a square matrix and d be the determinant of the matrix A.
If D = 0, then the matrix A is called singular matrix.
2 6 0 
6 3  
Example : A =   and B = 6 20 − 6  are singular matrices, since A = 0 and B = 0.
 2 1 0 6 − 18
Non-singular matrix: Let A = aij  be a square matrix and D or A be the determinant of the

matrix A, if D  0 or A  0 then the matrix A is called non-singular matrix.

1 0 − 4
3 4  
Example : A =   and B = − 2 2 5  are non-singular matrices, since
1 31  3 − 1 2 
A  0 and B  0.
Equality of matrices: Two matrices are equal if they have the same order and the
corresponding elements are identical.
   
or, Let A = aij and b= bij be two matrices. Then the matrices A and B are equal i.e., A=B
if and only if m=n=q and aij=bij for al i and j in range.
1 0 
1 2 6 1 2 6   
Example : If A =   ,B =   and C = 2 5 , then A = B but A  C.
0 5 3 0 5 3  6 3
Inverse Matrix

Let A be a square matrix of order n. If A is invertible i.e., there exists a unique matrix B such
that AB=BA=I, where I is the unit matrix. then the matrix B is called inverse of A and is
generally denoted by A-1 and we write B=A-1. In case of inverse matrix if B is the inverse of
A, then A is also the inverse of B.
 2 3  5 3
Example : A =   and B = − 2 2
 4 5  2 − 1


 5 3 2 3 − 5 + 6 15 15  1 0
+

and BA= − 2 2   4 5 =  −2 2  = 0 1  = I ,
 2 − 1    4 − 4 6 − 5   
 

i.e., AB=BA=I

Therefore, the matrices A and B are invertible and they are inverses of each other so that

A−1 = B and B −1 = A.

Co-factors of a Matrix
If we multiply the minor of the element in the i-th row and j-th column of the determinant of
the matrix by (-1)i+j then the product is called the co-factor of the element . Co-factor of an
element usually denoted by the corresponding capital letters, symbolically

Aij = (− 1) A = (− 1)
i+ j i+ j
 minor of aij M ij
a11 a12 a13
For example; If A = a21 a22 a 23 , then
a31 a32 a33

a 22 a 23 a21 a23 1+3 a 21 a 22

A11 = (− 1) , A12 = (− 1) , A13 = (− 1)
1+1 1+ 2
,
a32 a33 a31 a33 a31 a32

a12 a13 2 + 2 a11 a13 2 + 3 a 21 a12

A21 = (− 1) , A22 = (− 1) , A23 = (− 1)
2 +1
,
a32 a33 a31 a33 a31 a32

a12 a13 3+ 2 a11 a13 a11 a12

A31 = (− 1) , A32 = (− 1) , A33 = (− 1)
3+1 3+ 3
,
a22 a23 a 21 a 23 a 21 a 22

 
Let A = aij nn
be a square matrix of order n, then transpose of the matrix Aij  
nn
is called
adjoint of A, where Aij is co-factor of aij in A .
 a11 a12 ... ... a1n 
a ... ... a 2 n 
 21 a22
For example, if A =  ... ... ... ... ...  , then
... ... ... ... ... 
 
a n1 an 2 ... ... a nn  nn
 T
 a11 a12 ... ... a1n   a11 a12 ... ... a1n 
a ... ... a 2 n  a
 21 a 22  12 a 22 ... ... a 2 n 
Adj A =  ... ... ... ... ...  nn =  ... ... ... ... ... 
... ... ... ... ...  ... ... ... ... ... 
   
a n1 a n 2 ... ... a nn  a n1 a n 2 ... ... a nn  nn
Here, A11 = co − factor of a11 in A
A12 = co − factor of a12 in A and so on.

Theorems on Transpose Matrix……

Thoorem-1: If A and B are comparable matrices and AT and BT are the transpose matrices of
A and b respectively, then
(i ) (AT )T = A
(ii ) ( A + B )T = AT + B T
(iii ) ( AB )T = B T AT
(iv ) (A)T = AT , where α is a scalar.

Determination of Inverse Matrix of Square Matrix

Let A be a square matrix of order n and D be the determinant of A. i.e,
 a11 a12 ... ... a1n  a11 a12 ... ... a1n
a ... ... a 2 n 
 21 a 22 a21 a22 ... ... a2 n
A =  ... ... ... ... ...  and D = ... ... ... ... ...
... ... ... ... ...  ... ... ... ... ...
 
a n1 a n 2 ... ... a nn  an1 an 2 ... ... ann
Determine the value of the determinant D. If D=0, then the matrix A is singular and it has no
inverse, If D  0, then the matrix A is non-singular and its inverse exists. To find inverse of
A, we have find adjoint matrix of A i.e., adj A and by the following rule we can find A-1
 a11 a 21 ... ... a1n 
 ... ... a n 2 
−1 1 Adj 1 a12 a 22
A = Adj A = =
D A A  ... ... ... ... ... 
... ... ... ... ... 
 
a1n a 2 n ... ... a nn 

2 2 0
Example -- Find the inverse of the matrix A =  2 1 1 
− 7 2 − 3
 2 2 0
Given that, A =  2 1 1 
− 7 2 − 3
−1 AdjA
we know that, A = A

1 1 2 1 2 1
Here A = 2 −2 +0
2 −3 −7 −3 −7 2
= (− 3 − 2) − 2(− 6 + 7 ) + 0
= 2(− 5) − 2(1)
= −10 − 2 = −12
i.e., A  0
 A is a non-singular matrix.
Co-factor of every element of matrix A are:

1 1 2 0
A11 = (− 1) A31 = (− 1)
1+1 3+1
= −5 =2
2 −3 1 1
2 1 2 0
A12 = (− 1) A32 = (− 1)
1+ 2 2+ 2
= −1 = −2
−7 −3 2 1
2 1 2 2
A13 = (− 1) A33 = (− 1)
1+ 3 3+ 3
= 11 = −2
−7 2 2 1
2 0  A11 A21 A31 
A21 = (− 1)
2 +1
=6
2 −3  Adj A =  A12 A22 A32 

2 0  A13 A23 A33 
A22 = (− 1)
2+ 2
= −6
−7 −3 − 5 6 2
2+3 2 2 
=  − 1 − 6 − 2
A23 = (− 1) = −18
−7 2  11 − 18 − 2
 5 1 1
 − − 
− 5 6 2
 1
2 2 6
1   1 
 ( Ans.)
AdjA 1
−1
A = = − 1 − 6 − 2 = 
A − 12   2 2 6 
 11 − 18 − 2  11 3 1 
− 12 2 6 
Elementary transformation: Let A be any matrix. Consider the following operations on the
matrix A.
1. Interchange of any two rows or two columns of A.
2. Multiply each of the element of a row or a column of A with a non-zero scalar.
3. Add scalar multiple of one row of A to another row or one column of A to another
column.
Each of the above operations are called elementary transformation or operations of A.
Two matrices A and B are called equivalent it one can be obtained from the other one by
elementary transformation (s) or operations (s) and it is denoted by A~B. If a matrix B is
obtained from A by using elementary row operations alone, then B is said to be row
equivalent to A.
Echelon Matrix: Echelon form (or row echelon from): An m/n matrix is said to be an echelon
matrix or is said to be in echelon form if it satisfy the following three condition:
(1) All non-zero rows are in above of all any zero rows. (i.e.,left most non-zero entry)
(2) Each leading entry of a row is in above to the right of the leading entry of a
column.
(3) All entries will be zero, below the leading entry of a column.
Example : The following matrices are in echelon form:
1 4 − 3 7 2 1 0 4 

(a) 0 1 6 2   
(b) 0 − 5 10 15
0 0 1 5  0 0 2 8 

Reduced row echelon form: An m/n matrix is said to be in reduced row echelon form if it is
in row echelon form (i.e., satisfy above three conditions) and satisfy the following two
conditions also:
(4) The leading entry in each non-zero entry in its column.

1 0 0 4  0 1 − 2 0 1
1 0 0  0
(a) 0 1 0 7  0 0 1 3 
(b) 0 1 0  (c )
0 0 1 −1 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1   
0 0 0 0 0
Canonical Matrix
A matrix in which all the terms of the principal diagonal are one and zero but not all zero and
all rows or columns of one are precedes all rows or columns of zeros is called canonical
mattix.
 
1 0 0 4  1 0 0 1 0 0
(a ) 0 1 0 7 , (b )0 1 0, (c )0 1 0
0 0 1
0 0 1 − 1   0 0 0
0 0 0

Equivalent Matrix: Two matrices A and B are called equivalent one can be obtained from the
other one by elementary transformations(s) or operation(s) and it is denoted by A~B. If a
matrix B is obtained from A by using elementary row operations alone. then B is said to be
row equivalent to A.
  1 2 3 − 1 5 3
  
Q. If A = − 2 5 − 1 and B =  7 − 2 1 , then prove that ( AB ) = BT AT .
T

 2 3 4   2 0 − 3
1 2 3 − 1 5 3
Solution: Given, A = − 2 5 − 1 and B =  7 − 2 1 
 2 3 4   2 0 − 3
 1 − 2 2 − 1 7 2
T  
 A = − 2 5 3 and B =  5 − 2 0 
T 
 3 − 1 4  3 1 − 3
− 1 7 2 1 − 2 2 
T 
Now B A =  5 − 2 0 
T  2 5 3
 
 3 1 − 3 3 − 1 4
 (− 1).1 + 7.2 + 2.3 (− 1)(− 2) + 7.5 + 2(− 1) (− 1).2 + 7.3 + 2.4 
= 5.1 + (− 2).2 + 0.3 5.(− 2) + (− 2).5 + 0(− 1) 5.2 + (− 2).3 + 0.4
 3.1 + 1.2 + (− 3).3 3(− 2) + 1.5 + (− 3)(
. − 1) 3.2 + 1.3 + (− 3)4 
− 1 + 14 + 6 2 + 35 − 2 − 2 + 21 + 8
=  5 − 4 + 0 − 10 − 10 + 0 10 − 6 + 0 
 3 + 2 − 9 −6+5+3 6 + 3 − 12 
 19 35 27 
=  1 − 20 4 ..........................(1)
− 4 2 − 3
 1 2 3  − 1 5 3
Again AB= − 2 5 − 1  7 − 2 1 
  
 2 3 4   2 0 − 3
 1.(− 1) + 2.7 + 3.2 1.5 + 2.(− 2 + 3.0) 1.3 + 2.1 + 3.(− 3) 
= (− 2)(
. − 1) + 5.7 + (− 1).2 (− 2).5 + 5.(− 2) + (− 1).0 (− 2).3 + 5.1 + (− 1)(. − 3)
 2.(− 1) + 3.7 + 4.2 2.5 + 3.(− 2) + 4.0 2.3 + 3.1 + 4.(− 1) 
 − 1 + 14 + 6 5−4+0 3 + 2 − 9  19 1 − 4
=  2 + 35 − 2 − 10 − 10 + 0 − 6 + 5 + 3 = 35 − 20 2 
  
− 2 + 21 + 8 10 − 6 + 0 6 + 3 − 12  27 4 − 3
 19 35 27 
( AB ) =  1 − 20 4 ............................(2)
T

− 4 2 − 3
Hence from (1) and (2), we get (AB)T=BTAT.
 1 0 − 4

Q. Compute the inverse of the matrix A = − 2 2 5 
 3 − 1 2 
AdjA
Solution: we know, A−1 =
A
1 0 −4
A = −2 2 5 = 1(4 + 5) − 0(− 4 − 15) − 4(2 − 6) = 25  0
3 −1 2

So the matrix is no-singular and hence A-1 exists.

7
 A11 A12 A13   A11 A21 A31 
ADj A =  A21 A22 
A23  =  A12 A22 A32 
 A31 A32 A33   A13 A23 A33 

The co-factors of the elements of A are

1+1 2 5 1+ 2 − 2 5 −2 2
A11 = (− 1) A12 = (− 1) A13 = (− 1)
1+ 3
=9 = 19 = −4
−1 2 3 2 3 −1
0 −4 1 −4 1 0
A21 = (− 1) A22 = (− 1) A23 = (− 1)
2+3 2+3 2+3
=4 = 14 =1
−1 2 3 2 3 −1
0 −4 1 −4 1 2
A31 = (− 1) A32 = (− 1) A33 = (− 1)
3+1 3+ 2 3+ 3
=8 =3 =2
2 5 −2 −5 −2 2

9 4 8

 Adj A =  19 14 3
− 4 1 2

 9 4 8
9 4 8  25 25 25 
1  3
19 14 3 =   ( Ans.)
19 14
Thus A−1 = 
25  25 25 25 
− 4 1 2  4 1 2
− 25 25 25 

Q. Find the inverse of the matrix

2 2 0
A =  2 1 1 
− 7 2 − 3
2 2 0
Solution: Given that, A =  2 1 1 
 
− 7 2 − 3
 AdjA
We know that, A−1 =
A
1 1 2 1 2 1
Here A = 2 −2 +0
2 −3 −7 −3 −7 2
= 2(− 3 − 2 ) − 2(− 6 + 7 ) + 0
= 2(− 5) − 2(1)
= −10 − 2 = −12
i.e. A  0
∴ A is a non-singular matrix,
Co-factors of every element of matrix A are:
1+1 1 1 2 0
A11 = (− 1) = −5 A31 = (− 1)
3+1
=2
2 −3 1 1
1 1 2 0
A12 = (− 1) A32 = (− 1)
1+ 2 3+ 2
= −1 = −2
−7 −3 2 1
2 1 2 2
A13 = (− 1) A33 = (− 1)
1+3 3+3
= 11 = −2
−7 2 2 1
1 0  A11 A31  − 5 6 2
A21 = (− 1)
2+1 A21
=6
2 −3  Adj A =  A12 A22  
A32  =  − 1 − 6 − 2
2 0  A13 A23 A33   11 − 18 − 2
A22 = (− 1)
2+ 2
= −6
−7 −3
2 2
A23 = (− 1)
2+3
= −18
−7 2
 5 1 1
 − − 
− 5 6 2
 1
12 2 6
AdjA 1  − 1 − 6 − 2 =  1 1 
A−1 = = 
A − 12    12 2 6 
 11 − 18 − 2  11 3 1 
−
 12 2 6 

3 4 − 1 
Q. Find the inverse of the matrix by using row canonical form A = 1 0 3 
 
2 5 − 4
 3 4 − 1 : 1 0 0
Solution: Let A : I 3  = 1 0 3 : 0 1 0
2 5 − 4 : 0 0 1
Reducing the system to row canonical form by using elementary row operations,
 1 0 3 : 0 1 0 
~ 3 4 − 1 : 1 0 0R1  R2 
2 5 − 4 : 0 0 1
1 0 3 :0 1 0
 
~ 0 − 1 0 : 1 − 1 − 1 R2' = R2 − R3 
0 5 − 10 : 0 − 2 1 
1 0 3 :0 1 0
 
~ 0 1 0 : − 1 1 1 R2' = (− 1)R2 
0 5 − 10 : 0 − 2 1
1 0 3 :0 1 0

~ 0 1 0 : − 1 1 
1  R3' = R3 − 5R2 
0 0 − 10 : 5 − 7 − 4
1 0 3: 0 1 0 
   1 
~ 0 1 0: − 1 1 1   R3' =  −  R3 
 1 7 2   10  
0 0 1:−
2 10 5 
 3 11 6
1 0 0: − − 
   
2 10 5
~ 0 1 0: − 1 1 1  R1' = R1 − 3R3 = I 3 : A−1
 1 7 2 
0 0 1:− 
 2 10 5 
 3 11 6
 2 − − 
10 5
Hence A is invertible and A =  − 1
−1
1 1  ( Ans.)
 1 7 2 
− 
 2 10 5 

Q. Find the echelon form and the row reduced echelon form of the matrix,
1 2 − 1 2 1
A = 2 4 1 − 2 3
3 6 2 − 6 5
1 2 − 1 2 1
Solution: Given, A = 2 4 1 − 2 3
 
3 6 2 − 6 5
Reduce the matrix to echelon form by the elementary row operations.
1 2 − 1 2 1  ' 1 2 − 1 2 1
 R2 = R2 − 2 R1 

~ 0 0 3 − 6 1   ' 
R = R3 − 3R1 
  '
 ~ 0 0 3 − 6 1 R3 = 3R3 
0 0 5 − 12 2  3 0 0 15 − 36 6

1 2 − 1 2 1

~ 0 0 3 − 6 1 R3' = R3 − 5 R2 
0 0 0 − 6 1
This matrix is in row echelon form. (Ans.)
  '  
1 2 − 1 2 1   R2 = R2 − R3  1 2 −1 2 1 
 1 
~ 0 0 3 0 0   '  1   ~ 0 0 1 0 0   R2' = R2 
 1   R3 =  −  R3   1  3 
0 0 0 1 −    6   0 0 0 1 − 
 6  6
   4 
1 2 0 2 1  1 2 0 0
3  '

~ 0 0 1 0 0  R1 = R1 + R2
'
 ~ 0


0 1 0 0  R1 = R1 − 2 R3 
 1 1
 0 0 0 1 −  0 0 0 1 − 
 6  6 
This matrix is in row reduced echelon form. (Ans.)
3 x + 5 y − 7 z = 13
Q. Solve the following equations with the help of inverse matrix, 4 x + y − 12 z = 6
2 x + 9 y − 3 z = 20
Solution: The given equations can be written in matrix form as
3 5 − 7   x  13 
4 1 − 12  y  =  6 ..................(1)
    
2 9 − 3   z  20
3 5 − 7   x 13 
   
Let A = 4 1 − 12, X =  y  and B =  6 
2 9 − 3   z  20
Then the equation (1) reduces to AX = B
 A−1 AX = A−1B  IX = A−1B
 X = A−1B................(2) Since A−1 A = I and IX = X
Let D be the determinant of the matrix A, Then
3 5 −7
D = 4 1 − 12
2 9 −3
= 3(− 3 + 108) − 5(− 12 + 24) − 7(36 − 2)
= 315 − 60 − 238 = 17  0
So the matrix A is non-singular and hence 𝐴−1 exists.
Now the cofactors of D are

1 − 12 4 − 12 4 1
A11 = = 105, A12 = (− 1) = −12 A13 = = 34
9 −3 2 −3 2 9
5 −7 3 −7 3 5
A21 = (− 1) = −48, A22 = =5 A23 = − = −17
9 −3 2 −3 2 9
5 −7 3 −7 3 5
A31 = = −53, A32 = (− 1) =8 A33 = = −17
1 − 12 4 − 12 4 1
  105 − 12 34   105 − 48 − 53
Therefore , Adj A = − 48 5 − 17 = − 12 5 8 
 − 53 8 − 17  34 − 17 − 17 
105 − 48 − 53
1 
8 
−1 1
and A = Adj A = − 12 5
D 17
 34 − 17 − 17 
Now from equation no. (1), we get

 x 105 − 48 − 53 13   1365 − 288 − 1060 1365 − 1348

 y  = 1 − 12 5    1 
8   6  = − 156 + 30 + 160  =  − 156 + 190 
 1 
  17  17 17
 z   34 − 17 − 17  20  442 − 102 − 340   442 − 442 
 x 17  1
  1   
  y  = 34 = 2
7
 z   0  0

 x = 1, y = 2 and z = 0
 The required solution is x = 1, y = 2 and z = 0 (Ans. )
Q. Solve the following equations by using row equivalent canonical matrix (by elementary
row transformations),
3 x + 5 y − 7 z = 13
4 x + y − 12 z = 6
2 x + 9 y − 3 z = 20
Solution: The augmented matrix of the given linear equations is
3 5 − 7 : 13 
Let A : L = 4 1 − 12 : 6 
2 9 − 3 : 20 
Reducing the system to row canonical form by using elementary row operations,

1 * * : * 
0 1 * : * 
 
0 0 1 : 0 
(Compute yourself)
 The required solution is x = 1, y = 2 and z = 0 (Ans. )

Rank: Rank of a matrix is the number of linearly independent rows or columns vectors.
Again the number of linearly independent rows of a matrix is called row rank and the number
of linearly independent columns of a matrix is called column rank. In a matrix row rank and
column rank are equal to the rank of the matrix.
Thus the rank of a matrix A is the maximum number of linearly independent rows or columns
(in echelon form number of non-zero rows or columns) in the matrix.
 3 −2 0 − 1
0 2 2 1 
Q. Find the rank of the matrix A = 
1 −2 −3 2 
 
0 1 2 1
3 − 2 0 − 1
0 2 2 1 
Solution: Given A =  
1 − 2 − 3 2 
 
0 1 2 1 
Reduce the matrix to row echelon form by means of elementary row operations.
3 − 2 0 − 1 3 − 2 0 − 1
0 2 2 1  0 2 2 1   '
~    
R3 = 3R3 − R1 ~ 
'   R3 = R3 + 2 R2 
0 − 4 − 9 7  0 0 − 5 9   R4' = 2 R4 − R2 
   
0 1 2 1  0 0 2 1 
3 − 2 0 − 1
0 2 2 1 
~
0 0 − 5 9 

 R4' = 5R4 + 2 R3 
 
0 0 2 23
This matrix is row equivalent to the given matrix and is in the row echelon form. Since the
echelon matrix has four non-zero rows, the rank of the given matrix is 4. (Ans.)
3 4 − 1 2
Q. Find the rank of the following matrix A = 1 − 2 3 1
 
3 14 − 11 1
3 4 − 1 2
Solution: Given A = 1 − 2 3 1
 
3 14 − 11 1
Reduce the matrix to row echelon form by means of elementary row operations.
1 − 2 3 1 1 − 2 3 1 '
 R = R2 − 3R1 
~ 3 4 − 1 2R1  R2  ~ 0 10 − 10 − 1  2' 
R = R3 − 3R1 
3 14 − 11 1 0 20 − 20 − 2  3
1 − 2 3 1
 
~ 0 10 − 10 − 1 R3' = R3 − 2 R2 
0 0 0 0 
This matrix is row equivalent to the given matrix and is in the row echelon form. Since the
echelon matrix has two non-zero rows, the rank of the given matrix is 2. (Ans.)

Eigenvalue and Eigenvector: If A is an n × n matrix, then a non-zero vector v in Rn is called

an eigenvector of A if Av is a scalar multiple of v, that ia Av = λv for some scalar λ. The scalar
λ is called an eigenvalue of A and v is said to be an eigenvector of A corresponding to λ.
“ Eigen” is a German word meaning “proper” or “own”.
• I − A is the characteristic matrix of a square matrix A.
• I − A is the characteristic polynomial of a square matrix A.
• I − A = 0 is the characteristic equation of a square matrix A.

• f ( ) =  0 n + 1n−1 + ....... +  n−1 +  n , is a polynomial in  of degree n.

• If f ( ) = 0 , then  is called a root or zero of the polynomial f ( ) .
• A scalar  is called an eigenvalue of a matrix A if there is a non-trivial
solution x of Ax = x.
• A nonzero vector x is called an eigenvector of A if Ax = x for some scalar  .
• Square matrices A and B are similar if ∃ an invertible matrix P such that
B = P −1 AP.
• Similar matrices have the same characteristic polynomial and the same Eigen
values.

Cayley-Hamilton theorem: Every square matrix satisfies its characteristic

equation.

Proof: Follow book.

1 4 
Example- Find all the Eigen values and associated eigenvectors of the matrix A =   in
 2 3
the field R.
Solution: The characteristic matrix of A is
1 0 1 4  − 1 − 4 
I − A =   − = 
0 1 2 3  − 2  − 3
The characteristic polynomial of A is
 −1 − 4
I − A = = ( − 1)( − 3) − 8 = 2 − 4 − 5 = ( − 5)( + 1)
−2  −3
 The characteristic equation of A is ( − 5)( + 1) = 0   = 5,−1
Hence, the Eigen values of A are  = 5 and  = −1.
 x
Let v =   be an eigenvector of A corresponding to  if and only if v is a non-trivial solution
 y
of (I − A)v = 0.
 − 1 − 4   x   0 
i.e.  =  
 − 2  − 3  y  0
 ( − 1)x − 4 y = 0
 ............(1)
− 2 x + ( − 3) y = 0
 4x − 4 y = 0
When  = 5, equation (1) becomes    x − y = 0............(2)
 − 2 x + 2 y = 0
This system is in echelon form having one equation in two unknown. So the system has a
nonzero solution.
Let y be the free variable and let y = 1, then x = 1.
1
Thus a nonzero eigenvector v1 =   corresponding to the Eigen value  = 5.
1
− 2 x − 4 y = 0
When  = −1, equation (1) becomes    x + 2 y = 0............(3)
− 2 x − 4 y = 0
This system is in echelon form having one equation in two unknowns. So the system has a
nonzero solution.
Let y be the free variable and let y = −1, then x = 2.
 2
Hence the nonzero eigenvector v2 =   corresponding to the Eigen value  = −1.
 − 1

Example: Find the eigenvalues and associated eigenvectors of the matrix

 3 2 4
A = 2 0 2
4 2 3
Solution: The characteristic matrix of A is I − A
1 0 0 3 2 4  − 3 − 2 − 4 
=  0 1 0 − 2 0 2 =  − 2  − 2 
0 0 1 4 2 3  − 4 − 2  − 3
 −3 −2 −4
The characteristic polynomial of A is I − A = − 2  −2
−4 −2  −3
( )
= ( − 3) 2 − 3 − 4 + 2(− 2 + 6 − 8) − 4(4 + 4 )
= 3 − 32 − 4 − 32 + 9 + 12 − 4 − 4 − 16 − 16
= 3 − 62 − 15 − 8
= 3 − 82 + 22 − 16 +  − 8
= 2 ( − 8) + 2 ( − 8) + 1( − 8)
(
= ( − 8) 2 + 2 + 1 )
= ( − 8)( + 1)
2

So, the characteristic equation of A is ( − 8)( + 1) = 0

2

 = 8,−1,−1
Thus the eigenvalues of the matrix A are  = 8 and  = −1.

 x
Now, to find the eigenvectors v =  y  corresponding to  , solve the homogeneous linear
 z 
system represented by (I − A)v = 0
  − 3 − 2 − 4   x  0 
i.e.,  − 2  − 2   y  = 0 
   
 − 4 − 2  − 3  z  0

( − 3)x − 2 y − 4 z = 0

  − 2 x + y − 2 z = 0.......................(1)
− 4 x − 2 y + ( − 3)z = 0


For  = −1, we get from (1)

− 4 x − 2 y − 4 z = 0

 − 2x − y − 2z = 0
− 4 x − 2 y − 4 z = 0


 2x + y + 2z = 0......................................(2)

This system is in echelon form having one equation in three unknowns. So the system has
nonzero solutions and two free variables exits.

Let y and z be the two free variables also let y = 2s, z = t; s, t  (s  0, t  0.)

Then x = −s − t.

 x  − s − t   − 1  − 1
Thus the solution of the system is  y  =  2s  = s  2 + t  0 
 z   t   0   1 

− 1 − 1
Hence, the eigenvectors corresponding to the eigenvalue  = −1 are v1 =  2  and v2 =  0 
 0   1 
For  = 8, equation (1)becomes,

 5x − 2 y − 4 z = 0

− 2 x + 8 y − 2 z = 0
− 4 x − 2 y + 5 z = 0


5 x − 2 y − 4 z = 0  L  = 5L + 2 L 

~  36 y − 18 z = 0  2 2 1

 − 18 y + 9 z = 0  L3 = L3 − 2 L2 


5 x − 2 y − 4 z = 0
~
 2y − z = 0
This system is in echelon form having two equations in three unknowns. So the system has
nonzero solutions and one free variable exists.

Let z be the free variable also let let z = 2t ; t  (t  0). Then y=t and x=2t

2t 
Thus the eigenvector corresponding to the eigenvalue  = 8 is of the form  t , t  (t  0).
2t 
2
In particular, if t=1 then v3= 1  is an eigenvector corresponding to the eigenvalue  = 1.
 2 

Example: Determine the values of  such that the following system of linear equation has
(i) no solution (ii) more than one solution (iii) a unique solution.
 x + y − z =1

2 x + 3 y + z = 3
 x + y + 3 z = 2

Solution : The given system of linear equations are
 x + y − z =1

2 x + 3 y + z = 3
 x + y + 3 z = 2

Reduce the system to echelon form by the elementary operations.
 x+ y − z =1 L  = L − 2L 
  2 2 
y + ( + 2)z = 1
1
~  L3 = L3 − L1 
( − 1) y + 4z = 1


 x+ y− z= 1  L  = L − ( − 1)L 
  3 2
y + ( + 2)z = 1 
3

4 − ( − 1)( = 2)z = 2 − 


 x+ y− z = 1  x+ y− z = 1
 
~ y + ( + 2)z =1 ~ y + ( + 2)z =1 .................(1)
 6 −  − 2 = 2 −   (3 +  )(2 −  ) z = 2 − 
 
This system is in echelon form. Now we consider the following three cases:

(i) From third equation of (1), we see that if  + 3 = 0 or  = −3 then the equation
becomes 0 = 5 , which is contradiction. Therefore, the system is inconsistent if
 = −3. Thus the system has no solution for  = −3.
(ii) We know, if the number of variables is greater than the number of equations, then
the system has more than one solution. From third equation of (1), we see that if
 = 2 then it becomes 0 = 0 . In this case the system has three variables within tow
equations. So the given system has more than one solution for  = 2.
(iii) We know, if the number of variables and the number of equations be equal then
the system has unique solution. The system (1) has a unique solution
(3 +  )(2 −  )  0    −3,   2.