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PEABODY
JOURNAL
OF EDUCATION
Volume 71, Number 3, 1996

Peace Education in a Postmodern World

Editor's Introduction 1
[an M. Harris

OVERVIEW
Conflict-Resolution Skills Can Be Taught 12
Benyamin Chetkow- Yanoov

Developing Concepts of Peace and War:

Aspects of Gender and Culture 29
Solveig Hagglund

Educating for the 21st Century:

Beyond Racist, Sexist, and Ecologically Violent Futures 42
Francis P Hutchinson

PEACE EDUCATION IN DIFFERENT CULTURES

Peace Education in an Urban School District
in the United States 63
Ian M. Harris

(Continued)
Australian Aboriginal Constructions of Humans, Society,
and Nature in Relation to Peace Education 84
John Synott

Early Tendencies of Peace Education in Sweden 95

Bengt Thelin

Nonviolent Conflict Resolution in Children 111

Diane Bretherton

Exploring Peace Education in South African Settings 128

Valerie Dovey

Educational Violence and Education for Peace in Africa 151

Clive Harber

Peace Education in Postcolonial Africa 170

Birgit Brock-Utne
PEABODY JOURNAL OF EDUCATION, 71(3), 1-11
Copyright © 1996, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Editor's Introduction
Ian M. Harris

During the 1980s, critics throughout the world advanced many re-
form proposals to address perceived failures of public education. Con-
servatives argued that the way to improve schools was to teach basic
skills and impose national standards. These reform efforts harkened
back to traditional notions of schooling, urging teachers to try harder
to teach basic academic curricula. Champions of this "back to basics"
effort blamed the failure of schools on problems within schooling
institutions themselves. Public debates about school policy ignored the
negative impact of violence on the lives of young people.
At the same time, in many countries of the world, educators were
arguing for a different approach to education reform, peace education,
which addresses problems of violence that distract students from the
cognitive lessons they are supposed to master. A peace education strat-
egy for improving school productivity rests on three main assump-
tions: (a) Violence contributes to the poor performance of many
students; (b) for schools to improve, adults in school settings need to
address problems created by violence; and (c) anxieties that make it
hard for students to master traditional subject matter can best be ad-

IAN M. HARRIS is Professor in the Department of Educational Policy and Community Studies,
School of Education, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee.

Requests for reprints should be sent to Ian M. Harris, Department of Educational

Policy and Community Studies, Enderis 529, School of Education, University of Wiscon-
sin, P.O. Box 413, Milwaukee, WI 53201.

1
I. M. Harris

dressed by a comprehensive peace education strategy that makes

school a safe place to learn and provides students with knowledge
about nonviolent ways to resolve conflicts. Many children do not per-
form well in school because they are afraid or frightened, either by
conflicts taking place outside school in their homes, communities, or in
a wider global context, or they feel threatened and insecure in the
school environment because of intimidations from other pupils and
school personnel. Educational reforms that ignore these problems of
violence are like rearranging the deck chairs on the Titanic. Students
distraught by violence-whether it be homelessness, random killings,
ethnic warfare, gang activities, or domestic abuse-have a hard time
focusing on school lessons. The best intentions of educators will be
undermined by icebergs of violence lurking directly under the surface
of children's lives. The articles in this volume demonstrate that ad-
dressing the fears of youth trapped in violent circumstances can im-
prove school productivity. Young people need to have a faith in the
future in order to invest in their school work. When adults fail to
address the concerns of young people terrified by violence, youth
become alienated from school, often dropping out and refusing to
complete assignments that ignore their deep worries about the future.
Peace education reforms have largely been ignored since the 19th
century when they were heralded as a way to avoid the scourge of
modern warfare. Initial attempts to teach about peace focused on war
and concepts of national security. In this century, Maria Montessori
argued that peace education was the best way to counteract the hatred
of fascism. During the 1980s, a decade that saw considerable growth
for peace education, teachers at all levels started to address the threat
of a nuclear holocaust. More recently, feminist scholars have attacked
patriarchal assumptions that support militaries and deny resources
necessary to develop healthy children. Stimulated by fear of the de-
structive power of atomic weapons, modern peace education reformers
assumed that children failed in schools because high levels of violence
make school lessons seem absurd to frightened youth who despair
about the future. In a postmodern world no longer divided along
superpower axes, peace educators in unique cultural circumstances
address many different concerns about violence-sexual assaults, eth-
nic and regional wars, human rights, domestic violence, refugees,
street crime, handgun violence, problems of underdevelopment, ecol-
ogy, and nuclear issues. School reforms based on principles of peace
education have in common a belief in the power of nonviolence to
create positive learning climates in schools and to address problems of
violence in the broader culture. They help young people understand

2
 Editor's Introduction

the sources of violence in their lives, stimulate a desire for peace, and
provide skills needed to resolve conflicts nonviolently.
In a postmodern world, peace educators concerned about violent
conditions outside school challenge popular uses of violence in the
media and question the unflinching embrace of modernism at the core
of schooling. Schools committed to modern paradigms of growth cele-
brate the Industrial Revolution with its material well-being and tech-
nological control over nature. Education becomes a path to
enlightenment, which in most countries is tied to technological devel-
opment, material standards of living, expansion of freedoms, and per-
sonal wealth. In the modern world, where educational systems
produce human consumers tailored to fit an ever-expanding capitalist
economic system, progress is seen as synonymous with the highest
good. Textbooks praise inventions but ignore their unforeseen conse-
quences to both the environment and social systems. This push for
modernity has marginalized the contributions of women to social insti-
tutions, created nuclear weapons, stimulated human population
growth, depleted resources, devastated the environment, and polar-
ized the haves and have nots. At the same time that the forces of
modernity have created great comfort for millions of people on this
planet, other segments of society live in communities with such high
levels of violence that back to basic lessons on traditional school sub-
jects seem absurd.
Postmodern thinking calls into question a commitment to rapid-
scale technological changes that contributes to a culture of violence. It
underscores the negative impact of scientific advances on ecosystems
and human communities. Peace educators in the postmodern world
grapple with problems of violence that seem so overwhelming, argu-
ing that education must be life-centered. They point out how the world
view adopted by modernity is spiritually, environmentally, and so-
cially destructive. In the past decade, over 2 million children have been
killed in wars and millions more were physically disabled or psycho-
logically traumatized. To help youth counteract the negative effects of
modernity, promoters of peace education reforms in schools celebrate
the diverse forms of life on this planet and motivate students to en-
hance living systems. They teach that a person's relationship to the
environment ought to involve moral judgments and not just economic
considerations about profit. They give voice to women and people of
color who have been excluded from policy discussions carried out in
Western capitals. Postmodern peace educators are skeptical about the
ability of science and technology to provide solutions for the ecological
crisis, but believe that educators at all levels can change cultural values

3
I. M. Harris

away from the use of force to advance human interests toward follow-
ing the various tenets of nonviolence.
One postmodern form of peace education based on the work of the
Brazilian educator, Paulo Friere, helps adults name forms of violence in
their lives and identify ways to respond to the problems of structural
violence, where citizens are denied human rights, live in violent neigh-
borhoods/ and lack such basic essentials as health care, housing, food,
or shelter. Peace educators do not ignore the impact of social inequali-
ties on the way children learn. Supporters of peace education reforms
understand that children may not successfully complete their aca-
demic assignments until their security needs are met.
In a postmodern world, educational reformers adopting the goals of
peace education study all different forms of violence, both interna-
tional and domestic. Violence, in its broadest sense, includes physical,
psychological, and structural violence and can be caused by thoughts,
words, and deeds-any dehumanizing behavior that intentionally
harms another. Physical violence includes direct harm to others-juve-
nile crime, gang attacks, sexual assault, random killings, and physical
forms of punishment. Psychological forms of violence occur often in
schools and homes, diminishing a child/s sense of worth. Structural
violence comes from social institutions that deny certain basic rights
and freedoms, when citizens can/t get jobs that pay decent wages,
health care, social security, safe housing, or civil rights. Many problems
of violence come from a commitment to militarism to solve problems.
Environmental violence caused by destruction of natural habitats
threatens people/s security and creates fear about the future. Violence
at home, in the form of domestic abuse, sexual assault, and child
neglect causes students to have low self-esteem and to distrust adults.
At the end of the 20th century, students in peace education classes
study many different aspects of the complex nature of violence in the
modern world. At the international level, peace educators provide
insights about why countries go to war and how nations can resolve
disputes without using force. At the national level, they teach about
defense and the effects of militarism. How do countries provide for the
security of their citizens? What military arrangements contribute to
peace and security? In a postmodern world, peace educators attempt to
build a culture of peace by supplementing concepts of national security
based on high-tech weaponry with concepts of ecological security
based on reverential relationships to the natural environment. At the
cultural level, peace educators teach about social norms, like sexism
and racism, that promote violence. At an interpersonal level, they teach
nonviolent conflict resolution skills. At the psychic level, they help
students understand what patterns exist in their own minds that con-

4
 Editor's Introduction

tribute to violence. Peace educators go right to the core of a person's

values-teaching respect for others, open mindedness, empathy, coop-
eration, concern for justice, willingness to become involved, commit-
ment to human rights, and environmental sensitivity. A student in a
peace education course acquires both theoretical concepts about the
dangers of violence and the possibilities for peace, as well as practical
skills about how to live nonviolently.
At the end of the 20th century, peace education takes many different
forms. Historically, peace studies have focused on interstate rivalries
and war-how to prevent hostilities between nations and build secu-
rity systems that reduce tensions between nation states. In a postmod-
ern world, peace educators are more concerned with how to reduce
conflicts between individuals in families, communities, and ethnic
groups, and how to live on this planet in sustainable ways. They want
to use their professional skills to stop the many forms of violence
inundating the lives of the children they are trying to teach.
As violence from home and community creeps into elementary, mid-
dle, and high schools, school personnel throughout the world are on
their own using three different levels of peace education strategies. At
the peacemaking level, they employ violence prevention strategies to
respond to dangerous threats in schools. At the peacekeeping level,
they teach skills to youth so they can resolve their conflicts without
using force, and at the peacebuilding level, they fill the minds of young
people with such a strong belief in alternatives to violence that they
will make choices that promote peace.
Violence prevention programs attempt to make schools safe by de-
terring youth from committing acts of violence. These peacemaking
strategies are often punitive, based on a negative approach to peace,
that is, stopping the violence. Many school personnel approach prob-
lems of violence with a law and order mentality threatening disorderly
children with suspension and expulsion. Frightened school personnel
in communities with gang-related violence and high incidence of juve-
nile crimes are responding to increased levels of violence with a variety
of peacemaking strategies that attempt to create an orderly school
climate. These violence prevention strategies include weapons sweeps,
locker searches, and even metal detectors. In some schools, surveil-
lance cameras create a prison-like atmosphere, enhanced when police-
men in uniforms patrol the halls. Additional staff are added to monitor
student activities and halt criminal behavior. These strategies enhance
the power of adults to control deviant youth behavior.
In reaction to violent behavior of youth, school personnel utilize
peacekeeping strategies in schools to point out the dangers of violent
interpersonal relations, to teach anger management strategies, and to

5
I. M. Harris

challenge prejudices. These approaches to the problems of violence in

the postmodern world attempt to empower young people to resolve
their own conflicts peacefully. They teach children and adults that
mediation resolves conflicts better than the use of force. Instead of
punishing youth, teachers pursuing peacekeeping strategies teach
about alternatives to violence, using a proactive strategy that empow-
ers young people to deal with increasing levels of violence in the
postmodern world.
Peacebuilding reforms go beyond responding to immediate forms of
violence that may be overwhelming students and teachers to promote
positive images of peace through the study of nonviolence. To prepare
young people to contribute to building a peace culture, peace educa-
tors promote ethics and moral relationships of care, a commitment to
truth, the interdependence of life, and the power of love to build what
Martin Luther King Jr. called beloved communities. They draw on stand-
ards of justice encouraging students to build a multicultural demo-
cratic world by advocating human rights, peace through justice, and
critical thinking. In a postmodern world, peace educators counteract
the effects of militarism, nuclearism, and ecological devastation with a
worldview based on the power of healing and personal transforma-
tion. Peace education reformers use the insights of a nonviolent ap-
proach to life that reflect the teachings of Jesus Christ, Buddha, Martin
Luther King, Jr., Tolstoy, Thoreau, and Gandhi. Another postmodern
aspect of peace education is the attempt by feminists to introduce into
school curricula the concepts of care, compassion, and connectedness.
Peace education reforms include, but also transcend, earlier efforts to
introduce international concepts as a way of teaching young people
ways to avoid war. They involve global education, awareness about the
environment, skills for interpersonal peace, and strategies for building
social cohesion.
Peace educators use these three different levels of peace strategies to
establish in schools a safe haven where young people can learn about
alternative dispute-resolution techniques. These different levels are
not mutually exclusive. In fact, they complement each other. Adults
use peacemaking strategies in school to establish an orderly learning
environment so that students can learn the skills of peacekeeping and
the higher order learnings involved in peacebuilding. Children in in-
ner-city areas throughout the industrialized world who suffer from
stress disorders similar to what children in Lebanon, El Salvador, Bos-
nia, Angola, or Northern Ireland experience need sensitive adults to
respond to their security needs before they can master the traditional
lessons they are supposed to learn in school. Peace educators have
added a fourth "R" (resolution) to the standard canon of "the three Rs"

6
 Editor's Introduction

(reading, writing, and arithmetic) that are considered basic to all learn-
ing endeavors. Although schools often seem powerless to counteract
the influence of media, parents, and peers who promote violence,
teachers who embrace peace education are trying to nurture in children
the seeds of compassion rather than hatred and revenge. In a postmod-
ern world, learning how to successfully resolve conflicts has become a
necessary condition for progress. Without these skills youth are in
danger of becoming thoughtless adults who contribute to further dete-
rioration of both the social system and the natural order.
Although these reforms have not been covered very widely in the
popular press and academic journals, this collection of articles will
indicate how educators have been applying insights from peace theory
at many different levels of schooling enterprises. At the macrolevel,
administrators use peace education strategies to create a cooperative
school climate. Thus, at a peaceful school, teachers have a high level of
trust with each other and meet on a regular basis to discuss school
problems. The administrative style would be inclusive, supportive of a
democratic community in which the contributions of all members are
valued. At the microlevel, peace education sets guidelines for
teacher-student classroom relationships based on the principles of
love and caring. Peace educators use a peaceful pedagogy to deempha-
size competition and to encourage cooperative learning. Peace educa-
tion also has a curricular component that provides important but often
neglected knowledge about struggles to achieve peace. All these differ-
ent forms of peace education have at their core a commitment to
nonviolence.
This issue of the Peabody Journal of Education, "Peace Education in a
Postmodern World," provides a comprehensive overview of the latest
developments in peace education reform. The articles in this issue were
collected at the Peace Education Commission sessions during the Inter-
national Peace Research Association conference held in Malta during
the fall of 1994. These articles by established experts in the field of
peace education from six different countries provide a unique over-
view of the current concepts and practices of peace education, discuss-
ing how educators in trouble spots like South Africa and Israel use
conflict resolution teaching strategies to help build a new social order
and to address long periods of violence and war. Not only does this
collection of articles represent a wide variety of peace education prac-
tices from different comers of the globe but it also represents different
academic perspectives. Several authors of these articles are psycholo-
gists; others are philosophers; one is a curriculum developer; one is a
community activist, promoting conflict resolution in South Africa; and
another is a social worker. This diversity of disciplines provides fasci-

7
I. M. Harris

nating insights into the practice of peace education in a postmodern

world.
This issue has been divided in two sections-the Overview, which
provides some general background about the principles and practices
of peace education, and Peace Education in Different Cultures, which
provides specific case studies of how educators are struggling to im-
plement peace education projects in different parts of the world.
The first article in the overview section, "Conflict-Resolution Skills
Can Be Taught," by Benyamin Chetkow-Yanoov of Israel, suggests
what education and social work might contribute to the field of conflict
resolution. It assumes that peacemaking attitudes and skills can be
taught and should be part of the curriculum of all public schools and
universities. This article describes a diversity of available conflict reso-
lution curricula geared for nursery, grade school, junior high school,
high school, university, and adult learners. Implications are explored
toward the conclusion.
The second article, "Developing Concepts of Peace and War: Aspects
of Gender and Culture," by Solveig Hagglund of Sweden, discusses
various assumptions about peace education and child development.
Hagglund raises interesting questions about the long-term impact of
peace education and ties peace education goals into cooperative educa-
tion, gender studies, and environmental concerns. What role can peace
education play in socializing children away from violence and involve
them in contributing to a peace culture?
The final article in the overview section, "Educating for the 21st
Century: Beyond Racist, Sexist, and Ecologically Violent Futures," by
Francis P. Hutchinson of Australia, explores some resources of hope in
preparing students for the next century. It argues the importance of
actively listening to children's voices about the future and of resisting
fatalistic fallacies that violent social trends are destiny. This discussion
emphasizes the importance of educational innovations such as peace
education, multicultural education, nonsexist education, and environ-
mental education. A discourse is invited in schools to move beyond
disabling or destructive fears by encouraging alternatives to violence.
The first article in the section on peace education in different cul-
tures, "Peace Education in an Urban School District in the United
States," by Ian M. Harris (author of Peace Education, 1988), reports on
the efforts of one school district in Milwaukee, Wisconsin to respond to
escalating violence in students' lives by teaching peace education. Peer
mediation, courses on nonviolence, environmental awareness, curric-
ula based on teaching respect, anger management, and violence pre-
vention have been initiated to help students deal with the problems of
violence in their lives.

8
 Editor's Introduction

"Australian Aboriginal Constructions of Humans, Society, and Na-

ture in Relation to Peace Education," by John Synott of Australia, states
that many conflicts around the world today come from clashes be-
tween advanced technological cultures and indigenous cultures.
Synott argues that to resolve these conflicts attempts have to be made
to understand what indigenous people are trying to defend. He de-
scribes salient features from the belief systems of Australian Aborigi-
nes who embrace an interdependency between all forms of life. A
recognition of kinship and a holistic relationship between humans and
other forms of nature will provide peace educators important insights
into how to deal with global conflict.
"Early Tendencies of Peace Education in Sweden," by Bengt Thelin
of Sweden, traces the development of peace education from the second
part of the 19th century and ties it to the growth of peace movements
in Europe and in the United States. Many peace associations during
this period were headed by women who argued that education can
help break down the barriers that promote hatred, war, and violence.
This article discusses the contribution of many outstanding Swedish
educators concerned with disarmament and development. Efforts to
promote peace education have been cyclical, rising and falling with the
two world wars and other regional conflicts.
"Nonviolent Conflict Resolution in Children," by Diane Bretherton
of Australia, presents an evaluation of a conflict resolution program
conducted in Australia. Young children exposed to a videotape were
asked to find solutions to conflicts and encouraged to seek nonviolent
ways to resolve conflicts presented to them. Bretherton provides sug-
gestions for how to best engage children in peacemaking while they are
being pulled toward violence by their broader culture. She argues that
adults need training in nonviolence and that gender is a central issue
in how children respond to peace education activities.
"Exploring Peace Education in South African Settings," by Valerie
Dovey of South Africa, one of the most violent places in the world,
explains that young people experiencing high levels of violence want
to learn conflict resolution skills. Teachers are responding to demand
from the community for peace education programs. This article dis-
cusses how staff at the Center for Conflict Resolution at the University
of Capetown and the Quaker Peace Center have been pioneers in
promoting peace education among South African youth.
"Educational Violence and Education for Peace in Africa," by Clive
Harber, a professor at the University of Natal in South Africa, describes
various forms of violence in Subsaharan Africa and argues that part of
the reason that there has been so much conflict since African countries
have gained independence is that these countries have not spent the

9
I. M. Harris

time or resources to promote democracy and peace concepts in schools.

Deep ethnic divisions and a shallow sense of nationhood have lead to
authoritarian regimes and an authoritative approach to schooling. In
their rush to modernize, schools have excluded the teaching of demo-
cratic values. Tolerance promoted in school settings and a multicultu-
ral approach to education are seen to be a crucial part of the efforts to
build more democratic and peaceful cultures in African countries.
"Peace Education in Postcolonial Africa," by Birgit Brock-Utne of
Norway (author of Feminist Perspectives on Peace, 1989), discusses three
points raised at the Jomtien, Thailand, World Conference on Education
for All: the effects of structural adjustments policies on the education
sector, the effects on higher education of a concentration of resources
on basic education, and the possibilities of education to strengthen
indigenous cultures. Examples from Tanzania and Zimbabwe show
that economic policies are making it impossible for African countries to
print their own textbooks and hence promote their unique cultural
values.
Postmodernism raises a crucial question, "What is progress?" These
articles hint at how educators can use the insights of peace education
reform to help students prepare for life in the 21st century. Confronted
with teen pregnancies, drug and street violence, and growing numbers
of students sinking below the poverty line, educators at all levels are
challenged to contribute to the transformation of a consumer society
based on patriarchal values. They can no longer hope to improve
school performance while ignoring social problems that leave children
hungry, without positive parental guidance, and fearful of violence.
Articles in this issue point out promising practices of peace education
to help youth confront the problems of violence so prevalent in the
postmodern world.
These articles demonstrate that educators can play a key role in
helping human societies progress toward more sustainable ways of
living on this Earth. They explain how conflict resolution techniques in
the Middle East and South Africa have helped overcome enemy images
and moved warring camps toward reconciliation, how throughout the
modern world peace educators have been trying to warn people about
the threats of war, how providing children with skills can help them
deal with violence, how tribal traditions of interdependence can pro-
vide important models for so-called "civilized societies," how environ-
mental awareness is crucial to help children construct positive images
of the future, how democratic educational practices can promote self-
esteem in post colonial societies, how alternative dispute resolution
mechanisms can positively resolve conflicts, and how peace education
efforts create positive learning climates in inner-city areas beset by

10
 Editor's Introduction

high levels of violence. These peace education reforms point to a new

way of thinking about schools that uses insights from nonviolent the-
ory to build a peace culture concerned about the plight of animals,
humans, and ecological systems throughout planet Earth.

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Editor's Introduction
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Peace Education in an Urban School District in the United States

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Australian Aboriginal Constructions of Humans, Society, and Nature

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Early Tendencies of Peace Education in Sweden

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