Engineering Physics Laboratory

ENGINEERING PHYSICS PRACTICAL

OBSERVATION AND DATA ENTRY BOOK

Academic year: 2021 – 2022 onwards

Name of the student

Section, Batch

Branch

Roll No./USN

Faculty in-charge

Department of Physics
B.M.S. College of Engineering
Bull Temple Road, Bengaluru-560019
http://www.bmsce.ac.in/home/Physics-Department-About
Engineering Physics Laboratory
 Engineering Physics Laboratory

Syllabus from the year 2021-2022 onwards

Engineering Physics Laboratory
Course Code 21PY1BSPHL /
CIE Marks 50
21PY2BSPHL

Teaching Hours/Week (L:T:P:S) 0:0:2:0 SEE Marks 50

Credits 01 Exam Hours 3 Hours

Course objectives:
1. To give hands-on experience on various experiments
2. To demonstrate competency and understanding of the basic concepts in experimental
Physics

List of Experiments:
Ten Experiments to be performed

Name of the experiment Mapping with

No. Skill
Units
1 Wavelength of transparent LEDs Unit-1 Determine
Wavelength of semiconductor LASER source using Unit-2
2 Determine
diffraction grating
Numerical aperture and attenuation coefficient of an Unit-2
3 Analyse
optical fiber
4 Divergence angle of semiconductor LASER beam Unit-2 Determine
5 Fermi energy of copper Unit-3 Determine
Thermal conductivity of a poor conductor by Lee Unit-3
6 Determine
Charlton’s method
7 Thermal conductivity of a metal by Forbe’s method Unit-3 Determine
Dielectric constant of a material by charging and Unit-4
8 Determine
discharging of a capacitor
Energy gap of a semiconductor using four probe Unit-4
9 Determine
method
10 Series and parallel resonance in LCR circuits Unit-5 Analyse
11 Spring constant of a given spring Unit-5 Determine
12 X-ray film analysis General Analyse
 Engineering Physics Laboratory

Course outcomes:
On completion of the course, the student will have the POs Mapped Strength of
ability to: mapping
Conduct experiments to obtain the desired physical
CO1 PO4 3
parameter of the given system

Assessment Details:
Scheme of Continuous Internal Evaluation (CIE):
Conduction of
Record
Criteria experiment and Viva-voce Lab Test Total Marks
writing
reporting
Marks 10 10 5 25 50

Lab Test: One experiment will be allotted for each student

Details of marks for each experiment
1. Write-up : 05
2. Conduction of experiment : 10
3. Result : 05
4. Viva : 05
Total : 25

Eligibility for Semester End Examination

Submission and certification of lab manual and record is compulsory to attend SEE
Minimum marks required in CIE to attend semester end practical examination: 20 marks
Viva-voce will be conducted individually

Semester End Examination:

All 10 experiments are included for the practical examination.
 Engineering Physics Laboratory

Scheme of Semester End Examination (SEE):

1. Exam will be conducted for 50 marks in 3 hours duration

Two experiments will be allotted for each student

2 Minimum marks required in SEE to pass: 20 out of 50 marks

3 Write-up 10 marks

4 Conduction of experiments 20 marks

5 Calculations, result with unit, 50 marks

10 marks
accuracy

6 Viva- voce 10 marks

Suggested Learning Resources:

https://bmsce.ac.in/home/contentView/Physics-Department/PHY/47
https://vlab.amrita.edu/?sub=1&brch=282&sim=1512&cnt=1
https://bop-iitk.vlabs.ac.in/basics-of-physics/List%20of%20experiments.html
https://virtuallabs.merlot.org/vl_physics.html
https://phet.colorado.edu
https://www.myphysicslab.com
 Engineering Physics Laboratory

DATA OF REQUIRED PARAMETERS

n = 8.45 x 1028/m3
Debye temp. (θ) = 343 K
1 Fermi energy of copper
A = 1.193 x 10-5 mK
L = 10 m
Thermal conductivity of m = 0.93 kg
2 a poor conductor by Lee
s = 520 J/kg K
& Charlton’s method
Thermal conductivity of s = 452 J/kg K, ρ = 7850 kg/m3 (for iron)
3 a good conductor by s = 401.93 J/kg K,
Forbe’s method ρ = 8520 kg/m3 (for brass)
d = 70 x 10-6 m
4 Dielectric constant A = 57.4 x 10-4 m2
R = 104 Ω
l = 2 x 10-3 m
5 Four probes method
A = 3.75 x 10-6 m2

PHYSICAL CONSTANTS
Name of the constant Symbol Value with unit
Planck constant h 6.63 x 10-34 Js
Speed of light c 3 x 108 m/s
Boltzmann constant kB 1.38 x 10-23 J/K
Elementary charge e 1.602 x 10-19 C
Mass of electron me 9.1 x 10-31 kg
Mass of proton mp 1.67 x 10-27 kg
Mass of neutron mn 1.67 x 10-27 kg
Permittivity of free space ε0 8.85 x 10 -12 F/m
 Engineering Physics Laboratory

CONTENTS

Sl. Experiment Page Date Marks Signature of the Faculty

No.
Measurements

1 Wavelength of transparent LEDs 9

2 Wavelength of semiconductor LASER 13

source using diffraction grating

Numerical aperture and attenuation

3 17
coefficient of an optical fiber

4 Divergence angle of semiconductor 19

LASER beam

Fermi energy of copper

5 21

6 Thermal conductivity of a poor 25

conductor by Lee Charlton’s method

7 Thermal conductivity of a metal by 29

Forbe’s method

Dielectric constant of a material by

8 33
charging and discharging of a capacitor

Energy gap of a semiconductor using

9 37
four probe method

10 Series and parallel resonance in LCR 41

circuits

11 Spring constant of a given spring

12 X-ray film analysis

Model Viva Questions & Answers 44

Total Marks Scored

The true sign of Intelligence is not knowledge but Imagination - Albert Einstein

You cannot teach a man anything; you can only help him discover it in himself – Galileo Galilei

Department of Physics, B.M.S. College of Engineering Page 1

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TEACHING STAFF:

S.No Name of the Faculty BMSCE Mail Ids

Dr. Murugendrappa M V [email protected],

1
Associate Professor & HoD [email protected]

Dr. T S Pranesha
2 [email protected]
Professor

Prof. T Renuka
3 [email protected]
Associate Professor

Prof. K Ravishankar
4 [email protected]
Associate Professor

Dr. Suresha B L
5 [email protected]
Assistant Professor

Dr. K E Ganesh
6 [email protected]
Assistant Professor

Dr. Latha Kumari

7 [email protected]
Assistant Professor

Dr. Kaliprasad C S
8 [email protected]
Assistant Professor

Dr. Karthik Kumara

9 [email protected]
Assistant Professor

Dr. Manjunatha S O
10
Assistant Professor

NON-TEACHING STAFF:

Sl.no Name Lab In-charge

1 Sri. V Venkatesh Engineering Physics Lab 1

Helper
2 Sri. G Manjunath Engineering Physics Lab 1, 2 and 3
Mechanic
3 Sri. Boriah Engineering Physics Lab 3
Peon
4 Sri. Anand T A Physics Office
S.D.A
5 Sri. Dhanush Engineering Physics Lab 2

Teachers inspire the smallest hearts to grow big enough to change the world !

Department of Physics, B.M.S. College of Engineering Page 2

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General instruction to students:

1. Submission of manual and record in every class for evaluation is mandatory.
2. Entries of observations should be made in manual only in Blue pen.
3. Calculations and substitutions should be shown explicitly.
4. After completion of the experiment, student should switch off the instruments and
disconnect the circuit.
5. The record book should be written following the format given in the manual.
6. Transfer the readings to the record book only after the evaluation by faculty in-charge in
the manual.
7. An additional graph should be drawn and attached to the record.
8. Mobile phones and smart watches are not allowed to the lab.
9. The student should bring his/her own calculator (except programmable calculator), pen,
pencil, eraser, etc., borrowing the same from others is not permitted.

Safety precautions about LASER:

Students are advised:

➢ Not to look at the LASER beam directly as it is hazardous to eyes

➢ To conduct the experiment only in the presence of faculty

➢ To switch OFF LASER source immediately after the completion of experiment

➢ Not to play with the LASER beam

Department of Physics, B.M.S. College of Engineering Page 3

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Vernier Calipers

Least count of the Vernier calipers =

Trial No. MSR cm CVD TR=MSR+(CVD×LC) cm

3
Mean thickness of the metallic disc =………......cm =……..m

Traveling Microscope

Least count of the travelling microscope =

TR=MSR+(CVD×LC) cm
Trial. MSR cm CVD
(For a particular position)

Using X scale

Using Y scale

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MEASUREMENTS
To conduct various experiments in the Physics Laboratory, we need to learn measurement of
dimensions and other physical quantities using a few instruments. Measurement of various
dimensions of object using (1) Vernier Calipers, (2) Traveling Microscope, (3) Screw gauge and
(4) Multimeter are discussed here.

1. Vernier Calipers: It is used to measure the length and breadth of some small objects
accurately. The main scale is graduated in cm and each division is 0.1 cm. The Vernier scale
consists of ten divisions. When an object is held between the jaws of the calipers, the MSR (main
scale reading) is taken as the value on the main scale which Vernier zero has crossed. The CVD
(coinciding Vernier division) is that number of division which exactly lies in line with some main
scale division. Total reading TR= MSR+ (CVD×LC) cm

Value of 1 MSD
Least count =
Total No. of VSD

Using the formula given above, calculate the least count of the Vernier Calipers. Perform the
measurement of main scale reading and Vernier coincidence at three different places to find the
thickness of metallic disc by holding it between the calipers.

2. Traveling Microscope: It is used for more precise measurements than Vernier calipers.
Calculate the least count and note down the readings of MSR and CVD for few positions by
moving the microscope. The main scale is graduated in cm and each division is 0.05 cm. The
Vernier scale consists of 50 divisions. When an object is focused through the TM and aligned with
the cross hairs, the MSR (main scale reading) is taken as the value on the main scale which
Vernier zero has crossed. The CVD (coinciding Vernier division) is that number of division which
exactly lies in line with some main scale division. Total reading TR= MSR+ (CVD×LC) cm

Value of 1 MSD
Least count =
Total No. of VSD

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Screw gauge

Diameter of the wire using screw gauge

Zero Error (ZE) = Zero Correction (ZC) =

Trial No. PSR mm HSR TR=PSR+{(HSR±ZC)×LC} mm

Mean Diameter of the wire=……………mm =………………….m

Multimeter:

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3. Screw gauge: Unlike the above instruments, screw gauge has a pitch scale graduated in mm
and a rotating head scale.
Pitch is the distance moved on the pitch scale for one rotation of the head. It is calculated by
giving an even number of rotations to the head and measuring the distance traveled on the pitch
scale.

Pitch = [ Distance moved on the pitch scale / No. of rotations given to the head scale ]

The least count for this type of instruments is given by

Pitch
Least Count =
No. of head scale divisions

=________________ mm = ______________ m
These instruments have an error called zero error which results due to the zero of the head scale
not coinciding with the zero of the pitch scale. This error can be both positive and negative. Zero
of the head scale below the pitch line corresponds to positive zero error. Conversely, the zero of
the head scale above the pitch line corresponds to negative zero error (see figures). The zero
correction is opposite to the zero error.

The total reading is calculated using the formula: TR=PSR+ {(HSR±ZC) ×LC} mm

Calculate the L.C of the screw gauge. Measure the diameter of the given wire and the thickness of
the cantilever beam and tabulate the readings as below.

4. Multimeter: A multimeter is a measuring instrument of electrical quantities in a circuit like

current, voltage and resistance. It can function as ammeter, voltmeter (both AC and DC) and
ohmmeter. It has various ranges built into it. By conveniently switching the rotatable knob of the
multimeter, we can choose the electrical meter required for a particular measurement. In our lab,
we need to use the multimeter for a few experiments.

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Circuit diagram:

Expected Graph:

Department of Physics, B.M.S. College of Engineering Page 8

 Engineering Physics Laboratory

Experiment No: Date:

WAVELENGTH OF TRANSPARENT LIGHT EMITTING

DIODES
Aim: To determine the wavelengths of the given light emitting diodes (LED s).

Apparatus: 0-5 V Power supply, LED s, 330 Ω resistor, 0-5 V Voltmeter, DC milliammeter.

Principle: Energy quantization

Formula: The wavelength of LED is calculated using the relation,

Where, h is Planck’s constant = 6.63 x 10 -34 Js

c is speed of light = 3 x 108 m s-1

e is electron charge = 1.602 x 10 -19 C

V is the knee voltage in volts of the LED, (to be measured from graph).

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure, with a 5 volts supply, 330 Ω resistor, milliammeter
and an LED connected in series and a voltmeter connected in parallel to LED.

2. Increase the voltage of the source in steps of 0.2 V using fine adjustment knob. Note down the
voltage across the LED and the current through the LED.

3. Repeat the above steps for another LED.

4. Plot the V-I characteristics on a graph sheet.

5. Mark the voltage at which non-zero current is registered. Draw a tangent to the curve at that
point. Project it to voltage axis. Read the voltage at the intersection which is the knee voltage.

6. Calculate the wavelength of given LEDs using the above formula.

Department of Physics, B.M.S. College of Engineering Page 9

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Observations:

LED 1 LED 2
Applied
Colour: Colour:
Voltage
Voltage Voltage
in volts Current Current
across across
I (mA) I (mA)
LED (V) LED (V)
0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

2.0

2.2

2.4

2.6

2.8

3.0

3.2

3.4

3.6

Department of Physics, B.M.S. College of Engineering Page 10

 Engineering Physics Laboratory

Substitution & Calculation:

Knee voltage for LED 1 = ___________ V (From graph)

Knee voltage for LED 2 = ___________ V (From graph)

Error Analysis:
During the calculation of certain parameters from the experimental results that are aiming for
known values, the percent error formula is a useful tool for determining the precision of your
calculations. The formula is given by:

Experiment al value − Expected value

% Error = x 100
Expected value

Result:

1. The wavelength of given LED 1, λ1 = _______________ m

2. The wavelength of given LED 2, λ2 = _______________ m

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Schematic Diagram:

Observations:
Distance between grating and the screen, d =
The number of rulings per inch on the grating, N=

For Grating-1 & LASER-1

Order of Distance of the spot from the

x
diffraction centre in m  = tan −1   sin θ λ nm
n Left Right Mean (x) d 

1
2
3
4
Mean, 1 =

For Grating-2 & LASER-2

Order of Distance of the spot from the

x
diffraction centre in m  = tan −1   sin θ λ nm
n Left Right Mean (x) d 

1
2
3
4
Mean, 2 =

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 Engineering Physics Laboratory

Experiment No. Date:

WAVELENGTH OF SEMICONDUCTOR LASER SOURCE USING

DIFFRACTION GRATING
Aim: To determine the wavelength of the given laser source.

Apparatus: Diode laser source, optical bench, moveable stand and screen and metre scale.

Formula: The wavelength, λ of the laser beam is given by

 sin   2.56  10 
−2

=   m
 n   N 

where, θ is the angle of diffraction

n is the order of diffraction
N is the number of rulings on the grating per inch
The angle of diffraction θ is given by

x
 = tan −1  
d 

where, x is the distance between the central spot and the spot of nth order
d is the distance of the screen from the grating.

Procedure:
1. Note down the distance d between the grating and the screen. Mount the laser source at one end
of the optical bench.
2. Mount the directional pointer on another stand of the optical bench.
3. Arrange the laser beam to touch the pointer for horizontal alignment of the optical bench.
4. Remove the pointer and mount the grating on that stand to get the diffraction pattern on the
screen.
5. Attach a graph sheet on the screen and mark the central maxima and at least four orders of the
diffraction pattern on either side of the central maxima on it.

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Error Analysis:
The formula for error analysis is given by:

Experiment al value − Expected value

% Error = x 100
Expected value

Substitution & calculation:

Department of Physics, B.M.S. College of Engineering Page 14

 Engineering Physics Laboratory

Result:
The wavelength of the given laser source is found to be λ1 = .................nm & λ2 = .................nm.

Department of Physics, B.M.S. College of Engineering Page 15

 Engineering Physics Laboratory

Schematic
Diagram:

Observations:

Cable Spot Distance D

diameter f (mm) tan  = θ Sin(θ Average) Intensity
2f
D (mm) (mA)
Cable 1

Average θ
Cable 2

Average θ

Substitution & calculation: Error Analysis:

The formula for error analysis is given by:

NA = sin

Experiment al value − Expected value

% Error = x 100
Expected value

Department of Physics, B.M.S. College of Engineering Page 16

 Engineering Physics Laboratory

Experiment No. Date:

NUMERICAL APERTURE AND ATTENUATION COEFFICIENT

OF AN OPTICAL FIBER

Aim: To determine the numerical apertures of the given two optical fibers and measure their
attenuation coefficient.

Apparatus: Laser source, optical fiber cables, screen, transverse motion bench and relative
intensity meter.

Formula: (i) The numerical aperture (NA) of an optical fiber is given by

NA = sin

where, θ is acceptance angle of the fiber.

(ii) The attenuation coefficient of the given cables

where,
Ix= Intensity of LASER at the end of shorter cable ; Iy= Intensity of LASER at the end of longer cable
lx=Length of the shorter cable ; ly= Length of the longer cable

Procedure:
1. Connect one end of the optical fiber cable (OFC) to the LASER source and the other end to the
connector which slides on the transverse motion bench.
2. Slide the connector close to the graduated screen (every line is 2 mm apart), fixed at the end of
the transverse motion bench and note down the spot diameter and the distance between the
OFC connector and the screen.
3. Move the connector to four more different distances from the screen and note down the spot
diameter each time.
4. Disconnect the cable from slide motion bench and connect it to the relative intensity meter and
note down the reading.
5. Repeat the experiment for the second cable.
6. Plot the graph of distance between the source (OFC connector) and the spot diameter.

Result: 1. The numerical apertures of the given two optical fiber cables are:
-------------for cable 1 and ---------------for cable 2.

2. Attenuation coefficient α = ------------------------------

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 Engineering Physics Laboratory

Schematic Diagram:

Tabular Column:

For LASER - 1
Horizontal Vertical Mean diameter (m)
Spot Distance ‘d’  w
Diameter (wh) Diameter (wv)  w + wv   = tan −1  
No in m w= h   2d 
in m in m  2 
I
II
III
Average θ1 =

For LASER - 2
Horizontal Vertical Mean diameter (m)
Spot Distance ‘d’  w
Diameter (wh) Diameter (wv)  w + wv   = tan −1  
No in m w= h   2d 
in m in m  2 
I
II
III
Average θ2 =

Error Analysis:
Experiment al value − Expected value
The formula for error analysis is given by: % Error = x 100
Expected value

Substitution & calculation:

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 Engineering Physics Laboratory

Experiment No. Date:

DIVERGENCE ANGLE OF SEMICONDUCTOR LASER BEAM

Aim: To determine the half angle of divergence of the given laser beam.

Definition: Divergence of a laser beam is defined as its spread with distance. It is measured in
terms of angle subtended by the laser spot at the point of origin of the laser beam.

Apparatus: Diode laser source, optical bench, moveable stand and screen and metre scale.

Formula: The half angle of divergence θ of the laser beam is given by

 w
 = tan −1  
 2d 
where, w is the mean diameter of the laser spot
d is the distance of the screen from the source.

Procedure:

1. Mount the laser source at the one end of the optical bench.
2. Mount the directional pointer on the other end of the optical bench.
3. Arrange the laser beam to touch the pointer for horizontal alignment of the optical bench and
then remove the pointer.
4. Now place the moveable stand and screen at distance d1 and note down the horizontal and
vertical diameters of the spot.
5. Repeat the above step for two more distances.

Result: The half angle of divergence of given LASER beam is found to be

θ1 = ......................deg. & θ2 = ......................deg.

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 Engineering Physics Laboratory

Circuit Diagram:

Observations:

Free electron concentration of copper, n = 8.45 x10 28/m3

Debye temperature of copper, θ = 343 K

The atomic weight of copper, M = 63.45

The area of cross section, A = 0.0769x10-6 m2

The length of the copper wire, l = 10 m

The resistance per unit length of the bridge wire, ρ = _______ /cm

The dial resistance, Rd = ___ 

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 Engineering Physics Laboratory

Experiment No: Date:

FERMI ENERGY OF COPPER

Aim: To determine the Fermi energy of copper.

Apparatus: Copper coil, oil/water bath, thermometer, Callender - Griffith’s bridge, galvanometer,
power supply

Formula: The Fermi energy of copper is given by

 R 
 n MA
2

EF = 1.764  10 −31  T  J
 L 
 
 
where,
n is the free electron concentration of copper in /m3
θ is Debye temperature of copper in K
M is the atomic weight of copper in kg
A is the area of cross section in m2
L is the length of the copper wire in m
R/T is the mean experimental constant in Ω/K

Procedure:

1. A copper wire of given length is wound on a fiber sheet in the form of a coil.
2. This coil is immersed in water bath and is connected to one arm of a Callender-Griffith’s
bridge (the S arm). A compensating wire is connected to the opposite arm (the R arm).
3. Now adjust the standard resistance dial to 1 ohm. Set the voltage output of the power supply to
1 V. Slide the key along the bridge and obtain null deflection. Note down balancing length ‘x’
in cm.
4. Obtain the balancing lengths at various temperatures. Tabulate the results.

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Sl. Temp ‘x’ R= Rd + x ρ

Temp C 0
[R/T] in Ω/K
No. K in cm in Ω

Room
1
Temp =

2 80 353

3 75 348

4 70 343

5 65 338

6 60 333

Mean [R/T] =

Substitution & Calculation:

 R 
 n MA
2

− 31  T 
EF = 1.764  10 J
 L 
 
 

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 Engineering Physics Laboratory

Error Analysis:
The formula for error analysis is given by:

Experiment al value − Expected value

% Error = x 100
Expected value

Result:

The Fermi energy EF of copper = J= eV.

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 Engineering Physics Laboratory

Experimental Setup:

Expected Graph:

Observations:

Thickness of a poor conductor using screw gauge:

Zero error (ZE) = Zero Correction (ZC) =

Least count (LC) = _________________mm

Trial No. PSR HSR TR=PSR+{(HSR-ZE)×LC}

mm mm
1

Thickness of a poor conductor =……………mm =………………….m

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 Engineering Physics Laboratory

Experiment No: Date:

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF A POOR CONDUCTOR BY

LEE AND CHARLTON’S METHOD
Aim: To determine the thermal conductivity of given poor conductor by Lee and Charlton’s
method.

Apparatus: Lee and Charlton’s apparatus, poor conductor in the form of a disc, stop clock,
Vernier callipers, screw gauge, two thermometers, steam generator and balance.

Experimental set up:

The experimental set up is shown in the figure. The steel disc B is hung from the stand with the
help of three strings. On the steel disc, the poor conductor sample disc 'S' is placed and over that a
metallic disc M is placed. On the metallic disc, a heating chamber H, with facility for steam-in
and steam-out is placed.

Formula: The thermal conductivity of a poor conductor is calculated using the relation,

where,
m is mass of the metallic disc B in kg
s is specific heat of the material of B in J/kg.K
d is thickness of the poor conductor S in m
r is radius of the poor conductor S in m
T1 is steady temperature of disc M in ⁰C
T2 is steady temperature of disc B in ⁰C
h is height of the metallic disc B in m
dT/dt is rate of cooling as calculated from the graph

Procedure:

1. Measure the diameter and hence the radius, r of the poor conducting specimen S, using a scale.

2. Measure the thickness, d of the sample using a screw gauge.

3. Arrange the steel disc, poor conductor and steam chamber as shown in the schematic diagram.
Insert the thermometers into the grooves of steam chamber and steel disc, which measure the
temperatures T1 and T2, respectively.

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 Engineering Physics Laboratory

Observations:

Mass of the metallic disc B, m= 0.93 kg

Specific heat of the material of B, s = 520 J/kg.K
Thickness of the poor conductor, d= m
Radius of the poor conductor S, r= m
Steady temperature of disc M, T1 = ⁰C
Steady temperature of disc B, T2 = ⁰C
Height of the metallic disc B, h = 0.01 m

Rate of cooling of brass disc:

Temperature of
Sl. No. Time (min) Time in s
steel disc T ⁰C
1 0 0

2 1 60

3 2 120

4 3 180

5 4 240

6 5 300

7 6 360

8 7 420

9 8 480

10 9 540

11 10 600

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4. Turn on the heater and monitor the temperatures T1 and T2 at a regular interval till they reach
the steady state. Note the steady state temperatures T1 and T2.

5. To determine the rate of cooling of brass disc, lift the heating chamber and remove the
sample disc S, then place the heating chamber directly on the brass disc, B.

6. Allow the brass disc B to heat at least about 100C above the steady state temperature T2
measured in the first part of the experiment. Remove the heating chamber.

7. Switch on the stop clock and measure the temperature of brass disc at an interval of 60 s as it
cools down.

8. Plot a graph of temperature T of brass disc as a function of time. Draw tangential line to the
curve, corresponding to the temperature T2 and determine its slope. The slope is equivalent to
 dT 
 dt 
  T2

9. Calculate the thermal conductivity, K by the given formula.

Substitution & Calculation:

Rate of cooling from the calculated graph [dT/dt] =

Error Analysis:
The formula for error analysis is given by:

Experiment al value − Expected value

% Error = x 100
Expected value
=

Result: Thermal conductivity of the given poor conductor specimen is found to be

……………………………….W/mK

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Experimental setup:

Temp & Timer Temperature Sensors

module Heating
Element

T6 T5 T4 T3 T2 T1
X1 =5cm
X2 =10cm

X2 =15cm

X3 =20cm

X4 =25cm

X5 =30cm

Expected Graph:

Observations:

Table 1:

Distance x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6
(m) 5 x10-2 m 10 x10-2 m 15 x10-2 m 20 x10-2 m 25 x10-2 m 30 x10-2 m
Steady
temperature
T in °C

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Experiment No: Date:

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF A METAL BY FORBE’S

METHOD
Aim: To measure the thermal conductivity of a good conductor by Forbe’s method.

Apparatus: A long uniform hollow metal rod with holes drilled at appropriate places with
semiconductor thermometers (six), temperature and time reading unit.

Formula: The coefficient of thermal conductivity of the metal rod is given by

where,
ρ is the density of the metal rod in kg/m3
s is its specific heat J/kg.K
[ΔT/Δt] is rate of change of temperature
[dT/dx] is temperature gradient [(T2-T5)/(x5-x2)]

Procedure:

1. Insert the heating element into open end of the hollow metal rod. Heat the rod for about half
an hour so as to attain steady state.
2. Connect the output of the thermometers to the temperature and timer module.
3. Note down the temperature at different distances x as in Table 1. Plot a graph T vs X.
4. Find the ratio [(T2-T5)/(x5-x2)] from the graph.
5. Now turn off the heating. Reset the timer. Note down the temperature of all six thermometers
at an interval of two minutes, up to ten minutes as in Table 2.
L
T
6. Calculate ∆T = [T@ 0s ~ T@ 600s] and consider ∆t = 600 s. Compute the sum  t x as
0

indicated in Table 2 and Table 3.

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Table 2:

Temperature ⁰C
Time t
(sec) T1 (at x1) T2 (at x2) T3 (at x3) T4 (at x4) T5 (at x5) T6 (at x6)

120

240

360

480

600
[ΔT/Δt] =

Table 3:

 T   T 
x, cm ∆x, m  t   t  x
   
5 0.05

10 0.05

15 0.05

20 0.05

25 0.05

30 0.05
L
T
 t x
0
Total

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Observations:

Density of the material (brass or iron) of the rod, ρ= (8520 or7850) kg/m3

Specific heat of the material (brass or iron) of the rod s = (401.93 or 452) J/kg.K

Substitution & Calculation:

L
T
 t x
0
From the table=

dT/dx, the temperature gradient [(T2-T5)/(x5-x2)] from the graph =

Error Analysis:
The formula for error analysis is given by:

Experiment al value − Expected value

% Error = x 100
Expected value

Result: The thermal conductivity of the given good conductor is = ………………..W/mK

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Circuit Diagram:

Expected graph:

Observations:
Thickness of the dielectric material, d= 70x10-6 m

Area of cross section of the dielectric material A= 57.4x10-4 m2

Time taken for charging /discharging to 1/e of the T½ = ________ s

voltage value
Resistance connected in the circuit R= 1x 104 Ω

Permittivity of free space εo = 8.85x10-12 F/m

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Experiment No. Date:

DIELECTRIC CONSTANT OF A MATERIAL BY CHARGING

AND DISCHARGING OF A CAPACITOR

Aim: To determine the dielectric constant of the material by the method of charging and
discharging of the capacitor.
Apparatus: Capacitor with known dimensions, 5 V DC power supply, voltmeter, resistor, stop
clock.
Formula: The dielectric constant k of the material inside the capacitor is

d T1/ 2  10−6
k=
0.693   0 AR
where,
d is the thickness of the dielectric material in m
A is the area of cross section of the dielectric material in m2
T1/2 is the time taken for charging /discharging to rise/fall to 1/e times of the
initial value of voltage in seconds
R is the resistance connected in the circuit in Ω
εo is permittivity of free space= 8.85x10 -12 F/m

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as shown and discharge the capacitance fully so that the voltmeter reads
zero volts.
2. Switch on the power supply and stop clock simultaneously.
3. Note down the voltage across the capacitor at 10 s intervals up to 150 s.
4. Reset the stop clock. Now switch off the power supply and start the stop clock simultaneously.
5. Again note down the voltage across the capacitor at 10 s intervals.
6. Plot a graph of voltage across the capacitor and time both while charging and discharging. Find
T1/2.

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Observation:
Time Voltage across capacitor in V
in seconds
Charging Mode Discharging Mode

0 0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

110

120

130

140

150

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Substitution & Calculation:

d T1/ 2  10−6
k=
0.693   0 AR

Error Analysis:
The formula for error analysis is given by:

Experiment al value − Expected value

% Error = x 100
Expected value

Result: The dielectric constant of the material present between the plates of the capacitor is,
k = ___________

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Schematic diagram:

Expected graph:

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Experiment No. Date:

ENERGY BAND GAP OF A SEMICONDUCTOR BY FOUR PROBE

METHOD
Aim: To study the temperature dependence of resistivity and to determine the energy gap of a
semiconductor.
Apparatus: Semiconductor in the form of a crystal, thermometer, four probes apparatus

Formula: The resistivity of the material of the crystal is given by

where, R is the resistance of the crystal in ohm,

A is area of the crystal in m2
l is the length of the crystal in m.

Energy gap of the semiconductor is given by

 2.303  2  k  Slope 
Eg =   eV
 1.602  10 −19
where, k is Boltzmann constant =1.38x10-23 J/K
Slope is calculated from the graph of log10 R vs (1/T)

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as in diagram.

2. Immerse the thermistor in the port in the crystal holder of the four probes apparatus.

3. Adjust the current at 2.00 mA. This value of current should be kept constant.

4. Switch on the oven and heat the sample up to 200 oC.

5. Switch off the oven and allow the crystal to cool.

6. Note down the value of voltage for every 10 oC fall in temperature starting from 200 oC.

7. Plot a graph of ρ versus T.

8. Plot another graph of log10 R versus (1/T) and calculate its slope.

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Observations:

Resistance Resistivity
Sl. Temp Temp Voltage in [(1/T) x 10-3]
V A log10 R
No. °C T, K mV R= Ω =R Ω-m K-1
I l

1. 160 433 2.309

2. 150 423 2.364

3. 140 413 2.421

4. 130 403 2.481

5. 120 393 2.544

6. 110 383 2.610

7. 100 373 2.680

8. 90 363 2.755

9. 80 353 2.833

10. 70 343 2.915

Current, I = 2.00 mA

Area of the crystal, A = 3.75x10-6 m2

Length of the crystal, l = 2x10 -3 m

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Substitution & calculation:

 2.303  2  k  Slope 
Eg =   eV
 1.602  10 −19

Error Analysis:
The formula for error analysis is given by:

Experiment al value − Expected value

% Error = x 100
Expected value

Result:

The temperature dependence of the resistivity of the given semiconductor is studied.

The energy gap of the given semiconducting material is Eg = __________ eV

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Circuit Diagram:

Fig.1. Series resonance circuit Fig.2. Parallel resonance circuit

Frequency response curve:

Fig.3. Series resonance curve Fig.4. Parallel resonance curve

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Experiment No. Date:

SERIES AND PARALLEL RESONANCE IN LCR CIRCUITS

Aim: 1. To study the frequency response of the series and parallel resonance circuits.
2. To determine the unknown value of the given inductor, bandwidth and quality
factor for the series resonance circuits.

Apparatus: Audio frequency generator, resistor, inductor, capacitor and milliammeter.

Formula: (i) The value of inductance is given by

1
L= H
4 f r2 C
2

where fr is resonant frequency in Hz

and C is the capacitance in F
(ii) Band width = (f1 ~ f2) in Hz
(iii) Quality factor of the series circuit is given by

fr
Q=
f 2 − f1

f1and f2 are lower and upper cut-off frequencies respectively in Hz

Procedure:

1. Connect a signal generator, a resistor, an a.c. milliammeter, an inductor and a capacitor in

series.
2. Switch on the signal generator and adjust its amplitude knob to get the milliammeter readings
within the scale for all frequencies between 200 to 1200 Hz.
3. Increase the frequency in steps of 50 Hz up to 1200 Hz starting from 200 Hz and note down
the milliammeter readings.
4. Connect the parallel LCR circuit and conduct the experiment as in case of series LCR circuit.
5. Perform the calculations for the observations of series LCR circuit.

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Observations:

Series Circuit Parallel Circuit

Frequency Current mA Frequency Current mA
Hz C = ______ μF Hz C = _____ μF

200 200

250 250

300 300

350 350

400 400

450 450

500 500

550 550

600 600

650 650

700 700

750 750

800 800

850 850

900 900

950 950

1000 1000

1050 1050

1100 1100

1150 1150

1200 1200

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Substitution & calculation:

fr 1
Q= L=
f 2 − f1 4 f r2 C
2

Error Analysis:
The formula for error analysis is given by:

Experiment al value − Expected value

% Error = x 100
Expected value

Results:

The resonant frequency of series LCR circuit = ________________________ Hz

The bandwidth of the series LCR circuit = ________________________ Hz

The quality factor of the series LCR circuit = ________________________

The value of the inductance of the coil L = ________________________ H

The resonant frequency of parallel LCR circuit = ________________________ Hz

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MODEL VIVA QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

EXPERIMENT 1 : WAVELENGTH OF TRANSPARENT LEDs

1 What is a diode?
Diode is a p-n junction semiconductor device which allows current to flow in one direction

2 How LED gives light?

Light Emitting Diode gives light as a result of recombination of charge carriers

3 What is recombination radiation?

When forward biased a p-n junction develops a depletion region. With further increase in
forward bias voltage the holes and electrons recombine to gives out recombination radiation

4 What is the wavelength range for UV, Visible and IR radiation in nanometre?
Ultra Violet wavelength lies less than 400 nm, Visible lies between 400 nm – 700 nm, IR
lies in the range greater than 700 nm

5 Why different LED have different colour?

Different colour or wavelength of LED is because of different energy band gap of
semiconducting materials

6 What is the amount of energy consumed by LED to emit any wavelength?

E = e V where is e is charge of electron and V is the knee voltage of the LED

7 How does the product λV remain constant?

E = eV also E = hc / λ Therefore, eV = hc/λ or λV = hc/e = constant.
8 Mention some applications of LED. Which type of LED is used to send signal from the
remote to the TV?
LED's are used in sensors, bulbs, lasers etc. LED's which gives out IR radiation are used in
TV remote control

9 What is knee voltage?

The voltage at which conduction due to recombination of electrons and holes just starts is
known as knee voltage

10 Does all the diodes gives out radiation? Justify

Every LED gives light due to recombination. If the radiation lies in visible range of
wavelength, then we can visualize

11 What do you mean by depletion layer?

The junction region obtained due to fusing p & n semiconducting materials is known as
depletion layer

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12 Mention some semiconducting materials used in the manufacturing of diode.

Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) – infra-red
Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP) – red to infra-red, orange
Aluminium Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (AlGaAsP) – high-brightness red, orange-red,
orange, and yellow
Gallium Phosphide (GaP) – red, yellow and green
Aluminium Gallium Phosphide (AlGaP) – green
Gallium Nitride (GaN) – green, emerald green
Gallium Indium Nitride (GaInN) – near ultraviolet, bluish-green and blue
Silicon Carbide (SiC) – blue as a substrate
Zinc Selenide (ZnSe) – blue
Aluminium Gallium Nitride (AlGaN) – ultraviolet

13 What is Planck's constant? Mention its significance.

In the formula E = hv ; h = Planck's constant = 6.634 E - 34 J-s. The same formula can be
written as h = E/v with this h = E for v = 1. Hence Planck's constant is nothing but energy
itself for radiation of unit frequency.

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EXPERIMENT 2 : WAVELENGTH OF A LASER BEAM

1 What is diffraction?
Bending of light and its enter into the region of geometrical shadow of an object is called
diffraction.

2 What is the required condition for diffraction?

Diffraction takes place if the size of the obstacle is comparable to the wave length of
incident light.

3 What is a diffraction grating?

It is a plane glass plate, on which numbers of opaque lines are drawn at equidistant
parallel lines are drawn with the help of diamond point. The distance between two
successive opaque lines act as a slit whose width will be comparable with wavelength of
incident light. Thus, when light falls on a grating it undergoes diffraction.

4 What is the significance of grating

Distance between two consecutive lines of grating is comparable to wavelength of light;
so that light is obstructed by the edges of the rulings and hence diffraction takes place.

5 Define grating constant and what is its significance?

The spacing between two consecutive lines is called grating constant. As the distance
between two consecutive lines is of the order of size of the obstacle and hence
diffraction takes place when light incident on the grating.

6 What is order of diffraction?

They are the repeated diffraction patterns obtained on either side of the central maxima.

7 What is zeroth order?

The central maxima formed when light incident normally on grating (θ = 0) is called
zeroth order spectrum.

8 What kind of laser is used in the experiment?

Semiconductor diode laser is used in the experiment.

9 What happens to the fringe pattern if monochromatic light is replaced by

composite source?
Colored fringes are obtained with white fringe at the centre of the pattern.

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10 Why ordinary glass plates do not produce diffraction bands when exposed to light?
Because size of the object is very large compared to wavelength of light.

11 How many lines are there in the grating you have used
It is 250 Lines Per Inch (check before confirming)

12 What is stimulated emission?

Stimulated emission is the emission of a photon by a system, under the influence of a
passing photon of just the suitable energy, due to which the system transits from a higher
energy state to a lower energy state. The photon thus emitted is called the stimulated
photon and will have same phase, energy and direction of movement as that of the
passing photon called the stimulating photon.

13 How the gratings are prepared?

Gratings are prepared by ruling parallel and equidistant lines on a well-polished glass
plate using sharp diamond edge. Now a days Holographic method is used to create
gratings.

14 What is the type of diffraction involved in the diffraction grating experiment?

Fraunhoffer diffraction is involved in this experiment, because the source and screen are
effectively at infinite distance (collimator gives parallel rays of light).

15 What are the conditions required for LASER action

Population inversion and Metastable state.

16 What is Population inversion?

It is a stage at which number of atoms in the excited state exceeds the number of atoms
in the ground state (N2 > N1)

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EXPERIMENT 3 : NUMERICAL APERTURE OF AN OPTICAL FIBER

1 Define Numerical aperture of an OFC
It is defined as the light gathering capacity of an OFC. If A is the angle of incidence
then Sin A is known as Numerical Aperture.

2 If n1 is the RI of core and n2 is the RI of cladding, then what is the dependence

between the them?
n1 > n2

3 Define acceptance angle

The angle made by the signal at the core point in order to propagate within the fiber is
known as acceptance angle.

4 If A is the apex angel of the acceptance cone and B is any angle other than
acceptance angle, then write the relation between A & B.
Initially B ≤ A or Sin B ≤ Sin A or Sin B ≤ NA

5 How many types of optical fiber cables are there?

There are three types, 1 Single mode step-index, 2. Multi mode step-index &
3. Graded index fiber

6 What is attenuation in OFC?

The Sum total loss in the signal strength while traversing through the fiber is known
as attenuation

7 What are macro bend and micro bend losses?

Macrobend losses occurs when radius of curvature is large as compared to fiber
diameter. Whereas, microbend losses are small scale fluctuations in radius of
curvature of the fiber axis.

8 State the losses responsible for attenuation in optical fibers.

1. Absorption 2. scattering 3. Bending

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9 Write the formula for attenuation of OFC with unit

α = -10/L log(Po/Pi) dB/km

10 A single mode fibre has low intermodal dispersion than multimode. Explain
In both single and multimode fibres the refractive indices will be in step by step.
Since a single mode has less dispersion than multimode, the single mode step index
fibre also has low intermodal dispersion compared to multimode step index fibre.

11 How does the refractive index vary in Graded Index fibre?

The refractive index of the core is maximum along the fibre axis and it gradually
decreases. Here the refractive index varies radially from the axis of the fibre. Hence it
is called graded index fibre.

12 Explain why multi mode fiber has more distortion?

When rays travel through longer distances there will be some difference in reflected
angles. Hence high angle rays arrive later than low angle rays. Therefore the signal
pulses are broadened thereby results in a distorted output.

13 Why graded index fiber has less distortion?

The light travels with different speeds in different paths because of the variation in
their refractive indices. At the outer edge it travels faster than near the centre But
almost all the rays reach the exit end at the same time due to the helical path. Thus,
there is no dispersion in the pulses and hence the output is not a distorted output.

14 What causes microscopic bend?

Micro-bends losses are caused due to non-uniformities inside the fibre. This micro-
bends in fibre appears due to non-uniform pressures created during the cabling of
fibre.

15 What is normalized frequency or V-number? How many modes are allowed to

pass through the fiber at maximum?
It is given by V = πd/λ (NA) ; Maximum no of modes = V2/2

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EXPERIMENT 4 : DIVERGENCE OF A LASER BEAM

1 Define divergence of laser beam
Spread of the beam with distance is known as divergence

2 Which property of laser is responsible for low value of divergence

Highly directional property

3 Give one application of highly directional or low value of divergence for laser light
Measuring the distance between distant objects. For example, distance between earth and
moon using the formula Distance = velocity x time

4 What is the formula used to find half angle of divergence?

θ = tan-1(w/2d)

5 What will happen when laser light is focussed on a particular area for a long time.
Laser beam has very high intensity, directional properties and coherence. When it is
focussed on a particular area, for a long time then, the area alone will be heated and the
other area will remain as such . This is called thermal effect

6 Which laser system you have used?

Semiconductor laser

7 How recombination radiation gets converted into laser light in semiconductor

laser?
After fulfilling the conditions and requirements of laser, the recombination radiation gets
converted to laser light

8 What do you understand my metastable state?

The energy state in which an atom remains in the excited state for a relatively longer
time duration

9 What is the time duration of an atom in metastable state?

It is greater than 10-8 sec

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EXPERIMENT 5 : FERMI ENERGY OF COPPER

1 Define Fermi energy.
Energy of the maximum occupied level at absolute zero.

2 Is Fermi energy the same for all the metals?

No. It is constant for a given metal. For different metals it varies from 1eV to 10 eV.

3 What is Fermi level?

The highest occupied level is known as Fermi level

4 Define Fermi energy at a temperature greater than absolute zero.

Energy of the level at which the Fermi factor f (E) = 1/2 at T > 0 K.

5 What is the significance of the concept of Fermi energy ?

Conduction becomes possible only when some free electrons get energies greater than
the Fermi energy. Larger value of EF indicates better conduction property

6 What is the significance of the concept of Fermi level?

Conduction is possible only when the electrons cross this level

7 What is Fermi factor?

Probability of occupancy f (E) = 1/1+exp(E-EF)/kT of electrons in a given energy level
E at a given temperature T.

8 What is the probability occupancy below Fermi level at 0K?

f (E) = 1. All the levels are occupied.

9 What is the probability occupancy above Fermi level at 0K?

f (E) = 0. All the levels are vacant.

10 What is the probability occupancy at Fermi level at T > 0K?

f (E) = 0.5

11 Define Fermi Temperature

It is defined as the ratio of EF to Boltzmann constant, TF = EF/kB

12 Define Fermi Velocity

The velocity of electrons at Fermi level is known as Fermi velocity given by
VF = (2EF / m) 1/2
13 What is the difference between Fermi energy of a metal and semiconductor?
Fermi energy of a metal is constant however that of semiconductor depends on
temperature

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14 What are Fermions?

Fermions are the particles having half integer spin which obey Fermi - Dirac statistics

15 How many electrons are there in each energy level?

According to Pauli’s exclusion principle, there are 2 electrons are there in each energy
one with spin up and other with spin down

16 What is the effect of atomic number Z on EF & TF?

As Z value decreases EF & TF increase.

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EXPERIMENT 6 : K OF A POOR CONDUCTOR (LEE & CHARLTON’S METHOD)

1 Define Thermal conductivity with unit

It is defined as the ratio of amount of heat conducted to its temperature gradient. Its
unit is watts/meter.kelvin
2 What do you mean by temperature gradient?
The rate of change of temperature with respect to distance is known as temperature
gradient
3 How you define steady state temperature?
If A & B are two points where in heat energy is flowing, then steady state is the
point at which temperatures at points A & B becomes equal

4 Name the poor conductor you have used in the experiment

Cardboard sheet made of Cellulose

5 What are the sources of errors in this experiment?

1. Improper fixing of poor conductor between brass disk & metal drum & 2. Heating
& Cooling environment should be same

6 How to minimize the errors and improve the accuracy of the result
1. Care should be taken to fix the cardboard sheet exactly in between the drums in
such a way that the edges should not peed outside & 2. In order to maintain similar
heating & cooling environment, fans should be kept off till the completion of the
expt.
7 What correction factor has been added for this experiment?
(r + 2h)/(2r + 2h) is added in the formula to balance between heating & cooling
environments
8 Define specific heat capacity of a material with unit
The amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of the substance by one
kelvin is specific heat capacity having unit J/Kg.K
9 Does the value of thermal conductivity depend on the dimension of the
specimen?
No. For a given material the thermal conductivity is constant
10 Can this method be used for good conductors?
This method cannot be used for good conductors as T1 & T2 becomes almost equal
11 Is there any reason to take the specimen in the form of a disc?
For a disc the thickness is small whereas the cross-sectional area is large. Hence the
amount of heat that is conducted is large.

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EXPERIMENT 7 : K OF A GOOD CONDUCTOR (FORBE’S METHOD)

1 Define Thermal conductivity with unit

It is defined as the ratio of amount of heat conducted to its temperature gradient. Its
is unit is watts/meter/kelvin

2 What do you mean by temperature gradient?

The rate of change of temperature with respect to distance is known as temperature
gradient

3 How you define steady state temperature?

If A & B are two points where in heat energy is flowing, then steady state is the
point at which temperatures at points A & B becomes equal

4 Name the good conductor you have used in this experiment

We have two sets of instruments which uses Alloy of brass and Alloy of iron

5 How to minimize the errors and improve the accuracy of the result
1. After heating good conductor one should not remove the soldering gun from the
good conductor, instead heating should be just switched off & 2. Fans should be
kept off till the completion of experiment to maintain uniform heating and cooling
environment.

6 Mention some applications of this experiment

In selecting the material for heating coils, In identifying various heat sources &
sinks

7 Define molar specific heat capacity of a material.

The amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of one mole of the
substance by one kelvin is known as molar specific heat capacity

8 Can this method be used for poor conductors?

No, it cannot be used for poor conductors as the setup is digital and uses temperature
sensors

9 Can we say material with good thermal conductivity also has good electrical
conductivity? Explain
Yes. This is according to Weidemann-Franz law

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EXPERIMENT 8 : DIELECTRIC CONSTANT OF A CAPACITOR

1 What is a dielectric material?
It is an insulator. It has no free electrons for conduction. It can undergo polarization and
an electric field can exist inside. Eg. Glass, wood, mica, water, paper, bakelite, teflon, etc.,

2 How many types of dielectric materials are there? Explain with an example
Polar dielectric : Here the positive and negative charge centers are separated with a
distance, ex: H2O, NH3. Non polar dielectric : Here the positive and negative charge
centers coicides with eachother, ex: Methane, Benzene

3 Define dielectric constant or Relative permittivity

It is defined as the ration of C/Co or the ability of the material to get polarised

4 What is time constant?

It is the time required for increasing the voltage of the capacitor to half of its maximum
value during charging.OR It is the time required for decreasing the voltage of the
capacitor to half of its maximum value during discharging and it is represented by T1/2.

5 Define dipolar polarization

It can be defined as the dipole moment per unit volume having unit C/m2

Why the capacitance of the capacitor increases when a dielectric material is placed
6
between parallel plate capacitor
When dielectric is introduced between parallel plate, net field decreases (E = QV). This
inturn decreases the net voltage. Hence capacitance increases according to the equation
C = Q/V

7 In what form is the energy stored in a capacitor?

As electrostatic potential energy or electric potential energy of the charges.

8 Is there any capacitor (conductor) which can take unlimited charge?

Yes. The earth.

9 What is an electric dipole?

A pair of equal opposite charges separated by a small distance.

10 What is dipole moment? Mention its unit

Product of magnitude of either charge and the distance between the charges is dipole
moment (μ = q l). Its unit is C-m

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11 What is the product RC called?

RC = t is called the time constant of the circuit. It decides the charging rate (fast / slow).

12 Why does a capacitor block DC and allow AC?

When a capacitor is connected across a DC source, electrons are pulled out from the
positive plate and are transferred to the negative plate by the source. The pd between the
plates starts increasing. During this stage there is a flow of current. As the pd across the
plates becomes sufficient, the electrons on the negative plate start to repel the incoming
electrons. When the pd across the plates becomes equal and opposite to that of source,
there is no further flow of charges and hence capacitor blocks the direct current.
But when an AC source is used, the capacitor is charged and discharged periodically.
Thus a periodically varying current is maintained in the circuit.

13 Can we use an AC source to charge a capacitor?

No. Because, the direction of AC current alternates periodically. During one half cycle,
the capacitor is charged to some level (The plates acquire +ve and –ve charges). In the
next half cycle, the capacitor is discharged and recharged to the same level but oppositely
(the same charges are pulled out from plates and opposite charges are added). Hence there
no continuous accumulation of charges.

14 What is the role of the dielectric in the capacitor

When a capacitor with air between the plates is connected to a battery, it gets charged to
the source voltage. Now, if a dielectric is introduced between its plates, it reduces the
existing field. Hence pd between the plates drops. Then some more charges can be added
to the plates to maintain the original pd. In other words, it takes some more charges at the
same source voltage. Thus, its capacity increases.

To study charging or discharging, why do you plot voltage versus time instead of
15
charge versus time?
The charge cannot be measured directly whereas the voltage can be measured.
Since V α Q , that is voltage is a measure of charge, we can conveniently plot V versus t.

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EXPERIMENT 9 : ENERGY BAND GAP OF A SEMICONDUCTOR BY FOUR PROBES METHOD

1 Why is Four-Probe method preferred over other conventional methods for

measuring resistivity?
In Four Probe Method, the voltage across the inner two probes at different
temperatures is recorded. This voltage is an indication of resistance or resistivity only
if V is proportional to R or I is constant. This is why a constant current source is
necessary.

2 How do the conductivities of metals and semiconductor depend on temperature?

The conductivity of a semiconductor increases with increasing temperature while that
of a metal decreases with increasing temperature.

3 What is the equation giving the variation of conductivity/resistivity of a

semiconductor with temperature?
Resistivity: ρ = ρ0 exp{Eg/2kT} ; σ = σ0 exp{Eg/2kT}

4 Why we use a four point probe in comparison with two point probe?
Four-point probe is preferred than two-point probe as the contact and spreading
resistances in two point probe are large and the true resistivity cannot be actually
separated from measured resistivity. In the four probe method, contact and spreading
resistances are very low with voltage probes and hence accuracy in measurement is
usually very high. To measure very low resistance values, four probe method is used.
The resistance of probe will be not be added to that of sample being tested. It uses two
wires to inject current in the resistance and another two wires to measure the drop
against the resistance. Two Probe technique is suitable for measuring resistivity of high
resistivity samples, e.g., polymer films/sheets.

5 Define resistance and resistivity of a material.

Resistance is the property of substance due to which it opposes the flow of electrons.
However Resistivity is defined as the resistance of material having specific dimensions
( ρ = RA/L)

6 Define energy band gap

It is defined as the energy required for an electron to jump from valence band to
conduction band

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7 Name some semiconductors with energy band gap values

Material Energy gap (eV) 0K
Si 1.17
Ge 0.74
InSb 0.23
InAs 0.43
InP 1.42
GaP 2.32
GaAs 1.52
GaSb 0.81
CdSe 1.84
CdTe 1.61
ZnO 3.44
ZnS 3.91

8 What is a semiconductor ?
It is a substance with conduction properties between metals and insulators.

9 What is meant by intrinsic semiconductor ?

A pure semiconductor completely free from impurities is called intrinsic
semiconductor.

10 What do you mean by an extrinsic semiconductor ?

It is a semiconductor to which an impurity from group 13 or group 15 has been
added.

11 What are the charge carriers in a pure semiconductor.

A pure semiconductor has electrons and holes as charge carriers. Their number
densities are equal.

12 What is the effect of temperature on conductivity of a semiconductor ?

It increases with rise in temperature.

13 Why conductivity of metals decreases with increase in temperature?

However, when we increase the temperature the vibrational motion of electrons
increases and thus cause unwanted collisions which results in the increase of
resistance in metals. Therefore, the mobility of electrons decreases and causes
decrease in conductivity.

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14 Why conductivity of a semiconductor increases with increase in temperature

When temperature is increased in case of a semiconductor the free electron gets
more energy to cross the energy gap to the conduction band from the valence
band.so now more electrons can go easily to the conduction band so resistance
decreases with temperature.

15 Where does the Fermi level exist for intrinsic semiconductor

In intrinsic or pure semiconductor, the number of holes in valence band is equal to
the number of electrons in the conduction band. Hence, the probability of occupation
of energy levels in conduction band and valence band are equal. Therefore, the Fermi
level for the intrinsic semiconductor lies in the middle of forbidden band.

16 For a semiconductor what kind of trend a graph of log R vs (1/T) will be

Straight line trend with positive slope

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EXPERIMENT 10 : SERIES AND PARALLEL RESONANCE IN LCR CIRCUITS

1 What is an inductor?
An inductor is a passive circuit component which stores energy in its magnetic field.

2 What is impedance?
The opposition offered to the flow of AC by an element or a circuit.

3 What is capacitive reactance?

The opposition offered by a capacitor to AC. XC = 1/2πf C

4 What is a series resonance circuit?

A circuit containing an inductor, a capacitor and a resistor in series with an AC source.

5 When does the resonance occur in LCR circuit?

When the inductive reactance matches with the capacitive reactance.

6 What is resonant frequency?

The frequency at which inductive reactance matches with the capacitive reactance.

7 What is quality factor?

Ratio of resonance frequency to the band width

8 What are the uses of an LCR circuit?

In radio and TV receivers to select a particular station (frequency)
In communication devices like RADARs, etc.

9 Why is the LCR resonance series circuit called acceptor circuit?

When a number of signals of different frequencies are fed to an LCR series circuit, it
accepts only that signal whose frequency matches with resonance frequency of the
circuit.

10 What is the importance of series resonance circuits?

For high frequency A.C in radio communications, a series resonance circuit is used.
LCR circuits are used in frequency filter circuits like high pass filter, low pass filter
and band pass filter.

11 Why is the LCR resonance parallel circuit called rejecter circuit?

When a number of signals of different frequencies are fed to an LCR parallel circuit, it
rejects only that signal whose frequency matches with resonance frequency of the
circuit.

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12 What is bandwidth?
It is the difference between the lower half power frequency and the upper half power
frequency. That is BW = f1 − f2.

13 What is inductive reactance in an AC circuit?

The opposition offered to flow of AC by an inductor is called the inductive reactance,
XL = 2πfL. Where f is the frequency of AC supply in hertz and L is the inductance.

14 What is capacitive reactance in an AC circuit?

The opposition offered to flow of AC by a capacitor is called the capacitive reactance,
XC = 1/2πfC , where C is capacitance in farad and f is the frequency.

15 If the frequency of the AC source in a series LCR circuit is increased, how does
the current in the circuit change?
With the increase in frequency, the current in a series LCR circuit undergoes a series of
changes, that is the current first increases, attain a maximum value (f = fr) and then
decreases.

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