MODULE - 1

Introduction: Energy sources (including fossil fuels and nuclear energy), India’s production and reserves
of commercial energy sources, need for nonconventional energy sources, energy alternatives, Indian and
global energy scenario.
Solar Radiation & Measurement: Extra-Terrestrial radiation, spectral distribution of extra-terrestrial
radiation, solar constant, solar radiation at the earth’s surface, beam, diffuse and global radiation, solar
radiation data.
Pyrometer, shading ring Pyrheliometer, sunshine recorder, schematic diagrams, and principle of working,
actinometer and bolometer.

Introduction

The word ‘energy’ itself is derived from the Greek word en-ergon, which means ‘in-work’ or work
content. The work output depends on the energy input. Energy is the most basic infra-structure input
required for economic growth & development of a country. Thus, with an increase in the living standard
of human beings, the energy consumption also accelerated.

A systemic study of various forms of energy & energy transformations is called energy science. While
fossil fuels will be the main fuel for thermal power, there is a fear that they will get exhausted eventually
in the next century. Therefore other systems based on non-conventional & renewable sources are being
tried by many countries. These are solid, wind, sea, geothermal & bio-mass.

Classification of energy resources:

Based on usability of energy:

Primary resources: Resources available in nature in raw form is called primary energy resources. Ex:
Fossil fuels (coal, oil & gas), uranium, hydro energy. These are also known as raw energy resources.

Intermediate resources: This is obtained from primary energy resources by one or more steps of
transformation & is used as a vehicle of energy.
Secondary resources: The form of energy, which is finally supplied to consume for utilization. Ex:
electrical energy, thermal energy (in the form of steam or hot water), chemical energy (in the form of
hydrogen or fossil fuels).

Some form of energies may be classified as both intermediate as well as secondary sources. Ex:
electricity, hydrogen.

Based on traditional use:

Conventional: energy resources which have been traditionally used for many decades. Ex: fossil fuels,
nuclear & hydro resources
Non-conventional: energy resources which are considered for large scale & renewable. Ex: solar, wind &
bio-mass

Based on term availability:

Non-renewable resources: resources which are finited, & do not get replenished after their consumption.
Ex : fossil fuels, uranium
Renewable resources: resources which are renewed by nature again & again & their supply are not
affected by the rate of their consumption. Ex : solar, wind, bio-mass, ocean ( thermal, tidal & wave),
geothermal, hydro

Based on commercial application:

Commercial energy resources: the secondary useable energy forms such as electricity, petrol, and diesel
are essential for commercial activities. The economy of a country depends on its ability to convert natural
raw energy into commercial energy. Ex : coal, oil, gas, uranium, & hydro
Non-commercial energy resources: the energy derived from nature & used –directly without passing
through commercial outlet. Ex: wood, animal dung cake, crop residue.

Based on origin: a)Fossil fuels energy b) Nuclear energy c) Hydro energy d) Solar energy e) Wind
energy f) bio-mass energy g) geothermal energy h) tidal energy i) ocean thermal energy j) Ocean wave
energy

Fossil Fuels and Nuclear Energy:

In ancient times, wood was the most common source of heat energy. The energy of flowing water
and wind was also used for limited activities. Can you think of some of these uses? The exploitation of
coal as a source of energy made the industrial revolution possible. Increasing industrialisation has led to a
better quality of life all over the world. It has also caused the global demand for energy to grow at a
tremendous rate. The growing demand for energy was largely met by the fossil fuels - coal and petroleum.
Our technologies were also developed for using these energy sources. But these fuels were formed over
millions of years ago and there are only limited reserves. The fossil fuels are non-renewable sources of
energy, so we need to conserve them. If we were to continue consuming these sources at such alarming
rates, we would soon run out of energy! In order to avoid this, alternate sources of energy were explored.
But we continue to be largely dependent on fossil fuels for most of our energy requirements.

Burning fossil fuels has other disadvantages too. We learnt in about the air pollution caused by
burning of coal or petroleum products. The oxides of carbon, nitrogen and sulphur that are released on
burning fossil fuels are acidic oxides. These lead to acid rain which affects our water and soil resources.
In addition to the problem of air pollution, recall the green-house effect of gases like carbon dioxide.

The pollution caused by burning fossil fuels can be somewhat reduced by increasing the efficiency
of the combustion process and using various techniques to reduce the escape of harmful gases and ashes
into the surroundings. Besides being used directly for various purposes-in gas stoves and vehicles, do you
know fossil fuels are the major fuels used for generating electricity? Let us produce some electricity at
our own small plant in the class and see what goes into producing our favourite form of energy.

NUCLEAR POWER:

Under the nuclear option, the 2 alternatives under study are, 1] the breeder reactor, 2] nuclear fusion

1] The breeder reactor: In order to understand the working of a breeder reactor, it is necessary to
understand the fission reactions. Naturally occurring uranium contains 3 isotopes, U234, U235 & U 238. The
relative % of these isotopes is U234 – 0.006%, U235- 0.711% & U 238 -99.283% of these isotopes, only
U235 undergoes spontaneous fission when subjected to bombardment by slow neutrons. It is in fact that
only naturally occurring fissile material.

Fig.. Fission reaction of U235

The break-up of U235 when subjected neutrons & the release of a large amount of energy as heat [8.2
×107 KJ/gm of U235]. The neutrons are slowed down by a moderator, & used to bombard the U235 nucleus
again, there by setting up a controlled chain reaction. Although U238 is not a fissile material, it is a fertile
material, i.e., it can be converted by neutron bombardment into a fissile material, plutonium-239.
Similarly, naturally-occurring thorium-232 is also a fertile material. It can be converted into U233 which is
a fissile material.

It will be seen that the neutrons generated by the fission reaction serve two purposes. They help in
converting a fertile material to a fissile material & also sustain the fission reaction for the fissile material
formed. The above reactions are called breeder reactions if they produce more fissile material than they
consume & the nuclear reactor in which they are caused to occur is called a breeder reactor.

Breeding is achieved by having both fissile & fertile materials in the reactor core under conditions which
provide enough neutrons to propagate chain reactions in the fissile material as well as to convert more
fertile material into fissile material than was originally present.

Reactors working on various breeder cycles have been built. However, the major effort has been on
liquid-metal cooled, fast breeder reactors working on the U238 to Pu239 cycle.
 Fig: Breeder reactor for U238 & Th232

NUCLEAR FUSION:
In nuclear fusion, energy is released by joining very light atoms. The reactions of interest
involve the fusing of the heavy isotopes ofhydrogen [deuterium D & tritium T] into the next
heavier element, viz, helium. They are as follows.

D+D T + P + 4.0 MeV ............. [1]

D+D He3 + n + 3.2 MeV ............. [2]

D+T He4 + n + 17.6 MeV ............. [3]

D + He3 He4 + p + 18.3 MeV ............. [4]

6D 2 He4 + 2p + 2n + 43.1 Me............[5]

Equation [1] & [2] show that 2 nuclei of deuterium can fuse in 2 ways. Both ways are equally
probable. In the first, tritium & one proton are formed, while in the second, helium-3& one
neutron are formed. The energy released by the fusion reaction is indicated. Tritium is unstable &
combines with deuterium to form helium-4& one neutron, Equation [3], while helium-3
combines with deuterium to form helium-4& one proton, Equation [4]. The net result Equation
[5], is the addition of all the 4 reactions. It indicates that 6 deuterium nuclei are converted to 2
helium-4 nuclei, 2 protons & 2 neutrons with an energy release of 43.1 MeV.

Deuterium occurs naturally in sea water & it is estimated that the fusion of all the deuterium in
just one cubic metre of sea water would yield energy of 12×109 KJ.

The development of nuclear fusion reactor are the attainment ofthe required high temperature
by initially heating the fuel charge & the confinement of the heated fuel for a long enough time
for the reaction to become self-sustaining.
The research being conducted to solve these problems is proceeding broadly along 2 conceptual
directions- magnetic confinement & laser induced fusion.

In the first concept, the fuel charge [in the form of a charged particle gas composed of
positively charged nuclei & free electrons] is contained in a hermetically sealed vacuum
chamber & is heated to the required high temperature by passing an electric current through it.
At this temperature, the fusion reaction takes place successfully only if the gas is confined
within a certain volume for a specified time & not allowed to come into contact with containing
chamber‘s walls. This confinement is achieved by the application of a very strong, specially
shaped magnetic field.

In the second concept, the fuel charge in the form of very small pellets. These are positioned
one by one at a specific location & subjected to intense focused laser beams which heat the
pellets to the required temperature & cause fusion to occur. By adopting this method, the
confinement time is substantially reduced & the need for a magnetic field is removed.

Of the reactions given in equation [1] to [4], the D-T reaction takes place at the lowest
temperature; about 107 K. since tritium does not occur naturally, the D-T reaction should be
supplemented by one using lithium as follows:

D+T He4 + n + 17.6 MeV ............. [6]

N + Li6 He4 + T + 4.8 MeV ............. [7]

D + Li6 2 He4 + 22.4 MeV ............. [8]

India’s production and reserves of commercial energy sources

Production of Energy Resources:

Energy production and consequently its’ availability directly affects future production, imports, exports
and investment, all of which have a significant impact on a country’s economy. Detailed and high-quality
energy statistics provide policy makers with the information needed to make informed decisions and
evaluate possible trade-offs including planning for global price shocks in energy commodities.
Data on production of energy commodities, and stock changes are also required for monitoring national
energy security. In a rapidly changing energy scenario of the world in terms of trade, consumption and
stock levels, problems with national energy supply often are perceived threatening to national
independence, especially if national energy resources do not meet energy demands.
In Energy Statistics, production is defined as the capture, extraction or manufacture of fuels or energy
informs that are ready for general use. Two types of production are distinguished, primary and secondary.
 Primary production is the capture or extraction of fuels or energy from natural energy flows, the
biosphere and natural reserves of fossil fuels within the national territory in a form suitable for use. Inert
matter removed from the extracted fuels and quantities reinjected, flared or vented are not included.

Secondary production is the manufacture of energy products through the process of transformation of
other fuels or energy, whether primary or secondary. The quantities of secondary fuels reported as
production include quantities lost through venting and flaring during and after production.

This chapter presents the production of different energy resources and electricity.

Highlights

• Coal production in the country during the year 2021-22(P) was 778.19 million tonnes as compared to
716.08 million tonnes during 2020-21. There is an increase of 8.67%. The overall trend of production in
the last ten years i.e. 2012-13 to 2021-22(P) has shown a steady increase, except 2020-21, with a CAGR
of 3.80% (Table 3.1).
• The Lignite production during 2021-22(P) has been increased to 47.49 million tonnes from the figure of
37.90 million tonnes in 2020-21; an increase of 25.32% over 2020- 21(Table 3.1).
• However, the production of crude oil for 2021-22 (P) came out to be 29.69 MT as compared to 30.49 MT
during FY: 2020-21 which is a decline of 2.63% (Table 3.1).
• The CAGRs for Crude Oil and Natural Gas, w.r.t FY: 2012-13, are having negative CAGR of -2.66% and
-1.97% respectively. Electricity (generated from Hydro, Nuclear and other Renewable energy sources) is
having the highest CAGR of 6.83%, showing the remarkable growth of Renewable Energy in India
(Table 3.1).
• To allow comparison among and aggregation of production by different sources of energy, production
has been converted in terms of energy units, Petajoules. It may be seen that the total production of energy
resources has increased from 14,837.60 petajoules during 2020-21 to 16,146.44 petajoules during 2021-
22(P), an increase of 8.82% (Table 3.2).

Fig 3.1 : Compound Annual Growth Rate of Production of Energy

Resources from 2012-13 to 2021-22(P)
8
Percentage

6.83

6 Coal

3.80 (Million tonnes)

4 Lignite (Million

Tonnes)
2 Crude Oil (Million

0.25 Tonnes)
0 Natural Gas # (Billion

Cubic Metres)
Electricity* (GWh)
-2
-1.97
-2.66
-4
• India still depends heavily on Coal as the major source of energy. During the FY:2021- 22(P) energy
generated from Coal accounted for about 72.92% of the total generation of energy followed by Electricity
(from Hydro, Nuclear and other Renewable energy sources) (8.24%) and Natural Gas (8.16%).

Fig 3 . 2 : Trends in Production of Energy ( in petajoules) by

Commercial Sources in India from 2012 -13 to 2021 -22 ( P)

2,000 14,000

12,000

10,000

8,000

6,000
1,000
4,000

2,000

Lignite Crude Oil Natural Gas Electricity * 0Coal

• Within Coal, Public sector has the dominating share in production. During FY: 2021-22 (P) almost 96%
of total production has come from public sector. A scenario of performance made by Public and Private
sector during past 10 years has been given below,

Fig 3 . 3 : Share of Total Energy Generated ( in petajoules) from

different commercial sources in India during FY : 2021 - 22 ( P)

Coal , 72.92%
Electricity (from

Hydro Nuclear and

other RES), 8.24%

Natural Gas, 8.16%

Crude Oil, 7.87% Total Energy Generated = 16,146 PJ

Lignite, 2.81%
 Commercial energy reserve in india

• India has rich deposits of coal in the world. Total estimated reserves of coal as on 01- 04-
2022 were 361.41 billion tonnes, an addition of 9.28 billion tonnes over the corresponding
period of previous year. In terms of percentage, there has been a growth of 2.64% in the total
estimated coal reserves during the year 2021-22 over 2020- 21 (Table 1.1.).
• The top three states with highest coal reserves in India are Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh,
which account for approximately 69% of the total coal reserves in the country.
• Out of the total reserves in the country, proven reserves i.e. those available for extraction in
terms of i.e. economically viability, feasibility study and geologically exploration level,
account for almost 52% of the total as depicted below in Fig 1.1.

Fig 1.1 Estimated Reserves of Coal in India as on 01.04.2022

Indicated*

41%

Inferred*

7%

Proved*

52%

Total Estimated reserves = 361.41 Billion

• Total estimated of lignite as on 01-04-2022 were 46.20 billion tonnes, an addition of 0.18
billion tonnes over the corresponding period of previous year. In terms of percentage, there
has been a growth of 0.39% in the total estimated lignite reserves during the year 2021-22
over 2020-21 (Table 1.1A). The highest reserves of lignite are found in the state of Tamil
Nadu. Out of the total Lignite reserves in the country, proven reserves account for almost
only 16% of the total as depicted below in Fig 1.2.
 Fig 1.2 Estimated Reserves of Lignite in India as on 01.04.2022

Proved, 16%

Inferred, 28%

Indicated, 56%

Total Estimated reserves = 46.20 Billion Tonnes

• The estimated reserves of crude oil in India as on 01-04-2022 stood at 651.77 million tonnes
against 591.92 million tonnes in the previous year. An increase of over 10% over last year.
Geographical distribution of Crude Oil indicates that the maximum reserves are in the
Western Offshore (33%) followed by Assam (23%) (Table 1.2).

Fig 1.3: Estimated Reserves of Crude Oil in India as on 01.04.2022

Madhya Pradesh
(CBM), 0.00
Eastern Offshore,
6.0%
Western Offshore,
Jharkhand (CBM), 33.2% Andhra Pradesh,
0.00 1.7%

West Bengal, 0.0% Arunachal Pradesh,

Rajasthan, 15.9% 0.4%
Tripura, 0.0%
Assam,
22.8%

Tamil Nadu, 1.4%

Nagaland, 0.4% Gujarat, 18.1%

Total Estimated reserves 651.77 Million tonnes

• The estimated reserves of Natural Gas as on 01-04-2022 was at 1138.67 Billion Cubic Meters.
The maximum reserves of Natural Gas are in the Western Offshore (29.6%) followed by Eastern
offshore (23.6%).
Importance of Non-commercial energy resources:
The concern for environmental due to the ever-increasing use of fossil fuels & rapid depletion of these
resources has lead to the development of alternative sources of energy, which are renewable &
environmental friendly. Following points may be mentioned in this connection.
• The demand of energy is increasing by leaps & bounds due to rapid industrialization &
population growth, the conventional sources of energy will not be sufficient to meet the growing
demand.
• Conventional sources (fossil fuels, nuclear) also cause pollution; there by their use degrade the
environment.
• Conventional sources (except hydro) are non-renewable & bound to finish one day.
• Large hydro-resources affect wild-life, cause deforestation & pose various social problems, due
to construction of big dams.
• Fossil fuels are also used as raw materials in the chemical industry (for chemicals, medicines,
etc) & need to be conserved for future generations.

Due to these reasons it has become important to explore & develop non-conventional energy resources to
reduce too much dependence on conventional resources. However, the present trend development of
NCES indicates that these will serve as supplements rather than substitute for conventional sources for
some more time to time.

SALIENT FEATURES OF NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY RESOURCES

Merits:
• NCES are available in nature, free of cost.
• They cause no or very little pollution. Thus, by and large, they are environmental friendly.
• They are inexhaustible.
• They have low gestation period.

Demerits:
• Though available freely in nature, the cost of harnessing energy from NCES is high, as in
general, these are available in dilute forms of energy.
• Uncertainty of availability: the energy flow depends on various natural phenomena beyond
human control.
• Difficulty in transporting this form of energy.

ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF CONVENTIONAL ENERGY RESOURCES:

ADVANTAGES:
• Coal: as present is cheap.
• Security: by storing certain quantity, the energy availability can be ensured for a certain period.
• Convenience: it is very convenient to use.

DISADVANTAGES:
• Fossil fuels generate pollutants: CO, CO2, NOX, SOX. Particulate matter & heat. The pollutants
degrade the environment, pose health hazards & cause various other problems.
 • Coal: it is also valuable petro-chemical & used as source of raw material for chemical,
pharmaceuticals & paints, industries, etc. From long term point of view, it is desirable to
conserve coal for future needs.
• Safety of nuclear plants: it is a controversial subject.
• Hydro electrical plants are cleanest but large hydro reservoirs cause the following problems
a) As large land area submerges into water, which leads to deforestation
b) Causes ecological disturbances such as earthquakes
c) Causes dislocation of large population & consequently their rehabilitation problems.

The need for alternatives:

1. The average rate of increase of oil production in the world is declining & a peak in production
may be reached. There after the production will decline gradually & most of the oil reserves of
the world are likely to be consumed by the end of the present century. The serious nature of this
observation is apparent when one notes that oil provides about 30% of the world‘s need for
energy from commercial sources & that oil is the fuel used in most of the world‘s transportation
systems.
2. The production of natural gas is continuing to increase at a rate of about 4% every year. Unlike
oil, there has been no significant slowdown in the rate of increase of production. Present
indications are that a peak in gas production will come around 2025, about 10 years after the
peak in oil production.
3. As oil & natural gas becomes scarcer, a great burden will fall on coal. It is likely that the
production of coal will touch a maximum somewhere around 2050.
4. Finally, it should be noted that in addition to supplying energy, fossil fuels are used extensively
as feed stock material for the manufacture of organic chemicals. As resources deplete, the need
for using fossil fuels exclusively for such purposes may become greater.

ENERGY ALTERNATIVES:
SOLAR ENERGY:

➢ Solar energy is a very large, inexhaustible source of energy. The power from the Sun intercepted
by the earth is approximately 1.8×1011 MW which is many thousands of time larger than the
present consumption rate on the earth of all commercial energy sources. Thus, in principle solar
energy could supply all the present & future energy needs of the world on a continuing basis.
This makes it one of the most promising of the unconventional energy sources.

➢ Solar energy is received in the form of radiation, can be converted directly or indirectly into
other forms of energy, such as heat & electricity. This energy is radiated by the Sun as
electromagnetic waves of which 99% have wave lengths in the range of 0.2 to 4 micro meters.

➢ Solar energy reaching the top of the Earth‘s atmosphere consists about 8% U.V radiation, 46% of
visible light, 46% Infrared radiation.
 Classification of methods for solar energy utilization

Merits of solar energy:

• It is an environmental clean source of energy

• It is free & available in adequate quantities in all most all parts of world where people live.
De-Merits of solar energy:
• It is a dilute source of energy because even in hottest region the radiation flux is available only 1
KW/m2 & total radiation over a day is 7 KW/m2. These are low values from the point of view of
technological utilization.

• It is required large collecting areas are required in many applications & these results increase of
cost.
• Solar energy availability varies widely with time, it occurs because of the day-night cycle & also
seasonally because of the Earth‘s orbit around the Sun [even local weather condition].
Solar applications:

• Solar heating

• Solar cooling

• Solar pumping

• Solar furnace

• Solar production of hydrogen

• Solar green houses

• Solar distillation

• Solar energy

• Solar cooking
Thermal Energy:

Thermal energy refers to the internal energy present in a system in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium
by virtue of its temperature. The average transitional kinetic energy possessed by free particles in a
system of free particles in thermodynamic equilibrium. This energy comes from the temperature of
matter.

Thermal energy is the total energy of all the molecules in an object.

The thermal energy of an object depends on the 3 things:

1. The number of the molecules in the object

2. The temperature of the object ( average molecular motion)
3. The arrangement of the object molecules (states of matter)

There are 3 modes of thermal energy

1. Conduction, 2. convection, 3. radiation

Conduction: Heat is transferred from one molecule to another without the movement of matter.

Convection: Fluids (liquids & gases) transfer heat by convection, a process that causes mixing of the
warmer regions with the cooler regions of liquid or gas.

The main difference between convection & conduction is that convection involves the movement of
matter & conduction does not.

Radiation: it is the transfer of energy by electromagnetic waves.

ADVANTAGES:

• It is eco friendly

• Renewable sources

• No/less pollution

• By using this produce electricity

• Its help full for oil refining in Industry & home heating

DISADVANTAGES:

• Producing greenhouse gas

• Collecting of energy is a big problem, it requires sophisticated technology hence cost is more.
Steam engine
Gasoline engine
Photovoltaic (PV) or Solar Cell:

It is a device that converts solar energy into electric current using the photoelectric effect. The first PV
was introduced by Charles Frilt in the 1880‘s. In 1931 a German Engineer Dr.Bruno Lange developed
PV by using Silver Solenoid in place of Copper oxide.

Photovoltaic power generation employs solar panels, composed of number of solar cells containing
photovoltaic material. Photovoltaics are made up of semiconductors & it converts solar radiation into
direct current electricity.

Photovoltaic system consists of

a) Solar cell array, b) load leveler, c) storage system, d) tracking system (where necessary)

Working Principle: Solar cells rely on a quantum-mechanical process known as the ‘‘photovoltaic
effect’’ to produce electricity. A typical solar cell consists of a p-n junction formed in a semiconductor
material similar to a diode. Fig shows a schematic diagram of the cross section through a crystalline solar
cell. It consists of a 0.2–0.3mm thick monocrystalline or polycrystalline silicon wafer having two layers
with different electrical properties formed by ‘‘doping’’ it with other impurities (e.g., boron and
phosphorus).
An electric field is established at the junction between the negatively doped (using phosphorus atoms)
and the positively doped (using boron atoms) silicon layers. If light is incident on the solar cell, the
energy from the light (photons) creates free charge carriers, which are separated by the electrical field.
An electrical voltage is generated at the external contacts, so that current can flow when a load is
connected. The photocurrent (Iph), which is internally generated in the solar cell, is proportional to the
radiation intensity.

PV‘s are made up of semiconductors that generate electricity when they absorb light. As photons are
received, free electrical charges are generated that can be collected on contacts applied to the surface of
the semiconductors. Because of solar cells are not heat engines, & therefore, do not need to operate at
higher temperature, they are adapted to the weak energy flux of solar radiation, operating at room
temperature.

Advantages:

• Compare to fossil fuels nuclear energy sources, very little research money has been invested in
the development of solar cells.
• It gives long duration period(operation)
• Operating costs are extremely low compared to existing power technologies.
• Space craft (silicon solar cell)
• It can be applicable to either small or large power plants
• These solar cells are used to operate irrigation pumps, navigational signals, highway emergency
call systems, rail road crossing warnings & automatic metrological station.

WATER POWER (HYDRO POWER):

Power derived from the energy of falling water & running water, which may be harnessed for useful
purposes. In ancient years hydro-power has been used for irrigation & the operation of various
mechanical devices such as water mills, saw mills, textile mills, domestic lifts, power house & paint
making.

How the generator works: A hydraulic turbine converts the energy of flowing water into mechanical
energy. A hydro-electric generator converts this mechanical energy into electricity. The operation of
generator is based on the principle discovered by Faraday. He found that when a magnet is moved past a
conductor it causes electricity to flow.

In large generator electro magnets are made by circulating d.c through loops of wire wound around
stacks of magnetic steel laminations. These are called field poles & are mounted on the perimeter of the
rotor. The rotor is attached to the turbine shaft & rotates at a fixed speed. When rotor turns, it causes the
field poles (electromagnetic) to move past the conductors mounted in the stator. This is turn causes
electricity to flow & a voltage to develop at the generation output terminals.
Classification of hydro power:

The hydroelectric power plants are classified according to Head of water available

a) Low head Plants:

These power plants are also known as canal power plants. In these plants, the water head available is less
than 30 meters. The necessary water head is created by constructing dam across the river and the water is
diverted in to a canal which allows the water to flow in low forebay, from where the water is made to
flow through turbines. Then the water is discharged into the river through a tail race. The power house is
located near the dam itself and does not require surge tank. This plant uses vertical shaft Francis turbine
or Kaplan turbine.

b) Medium Head Plants:

In these plants, the operating head of water ranges from 30m to 100 meters. The forebay is provided at
the beginning of penstock, serves as water reservoir and conveys water to the turbines through
penstocks. Open canals are used to carry the water from main reservoir to the forebay which itself acts as
a surge tank. Forebay also stores the rejected water when the load on the turbine decreases. Francis
turbines are used in these type of plants. Factor is less than one. Therefore, for satisfactory working of
the plant, it is to be designed for average load and this type is known as base load plant. A small plant
known as peak load plant peak load plant is used to satisfy the load which is corning above the mean
load.

c) High head plants

When the available water head for power generation exceeds 100 meter, the plant is known as high head
plant. During rainy season, usually the water is stored in lakes or high mountains. From the reservoirs,
water is passed through tunnels which distribute the water to penstock through which the water is
conveyed to the turbines. A surge tank is attached to the penstock to reduce the water hammer effect on
the penstock. Water flow is regulated by head gates at the tunnel intake, butterfly valves at the entry to
the penstocks and gate valves at the turbines. These plants are usually provided with pelton turbines for
power generation.

d) Peak load plants

These plants are mainly intended to supply power during peak loads. Some peak plants, deliver power
during average and also peak load as and when it is there Run of plants with pondage and pumped
storage plants are used as peak load plants. In the first it uses a large pond which provides extensive
seasonal storage. This work on relatively high heads and load factor is considerably low.
WIND ENERGY:

Energy of wind can be economically used for the generation of electricity.

Winds are caused from 2 main factors:

1. Heating & cooling of the atmosphere which generates convection currents. Heating is caused by
the absorption of solar energy on the Earth‘s surface & in the atmosphere.

2. The rotation of the Earth with respect to atmosphere & its motion around the sun

➢ The energy available in the wind over the Earth‘s surface is estimated to be 1.6×107 MW
➢ In India, high wind speeds are obtainable in coastal areas of Saurashtra, Western Rajasthan &
some parts of Central India.
➢ Wind energy which is an indirect source of solar energy conversion can be utilized to run wind
mill, which in turn drives a generator to produce electricity.
➢ The combination of wind turbine & generator is sometimes referred as an AERO-GENERATOR.
➢ A step up transmission is usually required to match the relatively slow speed of the wind rotor to
the higher speed of an electric generator.
➢ Data quoted by some scientists that for India wind speed value lies between 5 Km/hr to 15-20
Km/hr
➢ Wind forms are operating successfully & have already fed over 150 lakh units of electricity to
the respective state grids.
➢ Wind speed increases with height.
The power in wind:

Wind possesses energy by virtue of its motion. There are 3 factors determine the output from a wind
energy converter, 1] the wind speed, 2] The cross section of wind swept by rotor & 3] The overall
conversion efficiency of the rotor, transmission system & generator or pump.

➢ Only 1/3rd amount of air is decelerating by the rotors & 60% of the available energy in wind into
mechanical energy.
➢ Well designed blades will typically extract 70% of the theoretical max, but losses incurred in the
gear box, transmission system & generator or pump could decrease overall wind turbine
efficiency to 35% or loss.
➢ The power in the wind can be computed by using the concept of kinetics. The wind mill works
on the principle of converting kinetic energy of the wind to mechanical energy.

Kinetic energy = k.E= ½ mv2 But m = ρAv

Available wind Power =Pa = 1/8 ρπD2V3 ......Watts

Major factors that have lead to accelerated development of the wind power are as follows:

➢ Availability of high strength fiber composites for constructing large low-cost rotor blades.
➢ Falling prices of power electronics
➢ Variable speed operation of electrical generators to capture maximum energy
➢ Improved plant operation, pushing the availability up to 95%
➢ Economy of scale, as the turbines & plants are getting larger in size.
➢ Accumulated field experience (the learning curve effect) improving the capacity factor.
➢ Short energy payback ( or energy recovery) period of about year,

Power coefficient:

The fraction of the free flow wind power that can be extracted by a rotor is called the power coefficient.

Types of wind turbines:

1] Horizontal axis wind turbines

2] Vertical axis wind turbines

1] Horizontal axis wind turbines: Machines with rotors that move in a plane perpendicular to the
direction of the wind.
Horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWT) have the main rotor shaft and electrical generator at the top of a
tower, and must be pointed into the wind. Small turbines are pointed by a simple wind vane, while large
turbines generally use a wind sensor coupled with a servo motor. Most have a gearbox, which turns the
slow rotation of the blades into a quicker rotation that is more suitable to drive an electrical generator.
Since a tower produces turbulence behind it, the turbine is usually positioned upwind of its supporting
tower. Turbine blades are made stiff to prevent the blades from being pushed into the tower by high
winds. Additionally, the blades are placed a considerable distance in front of the tower and are
sometimes tilted forward into the wind a small amount. Downwind machines have been built, despite the
problem of turbulence (mast wake), because they don't need an additional mechanism for keeping them
in line with the wind, and because in high winds the blades can be allowed to bend which reduces their
swept area and thus their wind resistance. Since cyclical (that is repetitive) turbulence may lead to
fatigue failures, most HAWTs are of up wind design.

2] Vertical axis wind turbines: Machines that have the working surfaces traveling in the direction of
the wind.

Vertical-axis wind turbines (or VAWTs) have the main rotor shaft arranged vertically. Key ad-
vantages of this arrangement are that the turbine does not need to be pointed into the wind to be
effective. This is an advantage on sites where the wind direction is highly variable, for example when
integrated into buildings. The key disadvantages include the low rotational speed with the consequential
higher torque and hence higher cost of the drive train, the inherently lower power coefficient, the 360
degree rotation of the aerofoil within the wind flow during each cycle and hence the highly dynamic
loading on the blade, the pulsating torque generated by some rotor designs on the drive train, and the
difficulty of modeling the wind flow accurately and hence the challenges of analyzing and designing the
rotor prior to fabricating a prototype.
With a vertical axis, the generator and gearbox can be placed near the ground, using a direct drive
from the rotor assembly to the ground-based gearbox, hence improving accessibility for maintenance.
When a turbine is mounted on a rooftop, the building generally redirects wind over the roof and
these can double the wind speed at the turbine. If the height of the roof top mounted turbine tower is
approximately 50% of the building height, this is near the optimum for maximum wind energy and
minimum wind turbulence.

BIO MASS:

✓ Bio-mass means organic matter.

✓ The energy obtained from organic matter, derived from biological organisms (plants & animals)
is known as bio-mass energy.
✓ The average efficiency of photosynthesis conversion of solar energy into bio mass energy is
estimated to be 0.5% - 1.0%.
✓ To use biomass energy, the initial biomass maybe transformed by chemical or biological
processes to produce intermediate bio-fuels such as methane, producer gas, ethanol & charcoal
etc.
✓ It is estimated that the biomass, which is 90% n tress, is equivalent to the proven current
extractable fossil fuel reserves in the world. The dry matter mass of biological material cycling in
biosphere is about 250 × 109 tons/Y.
✓ Animals feed on plants, & plants grow through the photosynthesis process using solar energy.
Thus, photosynthesis process is primarily responsible for the generation of bio mass energy.
✓ In simplest form the reaction is the process of photosynthesis in the presence of solar radiation,
can be represented as follows

H2O + CO2 CH2O + O2

• In the reaction, water & carbon dioxide are converted into organic material i.e., CH2O, which is
the basic molecule of forming carbohydrate stable at low temperature, it breaks at high
temperature, releasing an amount of heat equal to 112,000 Kcal/mole (469 KJ/mole).

CH2O + O2 CO2 + H2O + 112 Kcal/mole

 The biomass energy is used directly by burning or is further processed to produce more
convenient liquid & gaseous fuels.

Bio-mass resources fall into three categories:

1] bio-mass in its traditional sold mass (wood & agricultural residue), &
2] bio-mass in non-traditional form (converted into liquid fuels)
• The first category is to burn the bio-mass directly & get the energy.
• In the second category, the bio-mass is converted into ethanol & methanol to be used as liquid
fuels in engines.

3] The 3rd category is to ferment the biomass an aerobically to obtain a gaseous fuel called bio- gas (bio-
gas contains 55to 65% Methane, 30-40% CO2 & rest impurities i.e., H2, H2S, & some N2).

Bio-mass resources include the following:

1] Concentrated waste- - municipal solids, sewage wood products, industrial waste, and manure of large
lots.
2] Dispersed waste residue—crop residue, legging residue, disposed manure.
3] Harvested bio-mass, standby bio-mass, bio-mass energy plantation.

ADVANTAGES:

1] It is renewable source.
2] The energy storage is an in-built feature of it.
3] It is an indigenous source requiring little or no foreign exchange.
4] The forestry & agricultural industries that supply feed stocks also provide
substantial economic development opportunities in rural areas.

DISADVANTAGES:
1] It is dispersed & land intensive source.
2] Low energy density
3] Labour intensive & the cost of collecting large quantities for commercial applications are significant.

Bio-mass conversion technologies:

A] Incineration,
B] Thermo-chemical,
C] Bio-chemical
i] Ethanol fermentation, ii] Anaerobic fermentation.

TIDAL ENERGY:

The tides in the sea are the result of the universal gravitational effect of heavenly bodies like SUN &
MOON on the Earth.

• Periodic rise & fall of the water level of sea is called TIDE.
 • These tides can be used to produce electrical power which is known as tidal power.
• When the water is above the mean sea level called flood tide.
• When the water is below the mean sea level called ebb tide

BASIC PRINCIPLE OF TIDAL POWER

• The gravitational attraction of moon and the sun on the water present on the earth produces tides.
• The magnitude of attraction depends on the mass and its distance.
• This is given by Newton’s law of gravitation
• It states that “every object in the universe attracts the other object with a force”
• The gravitational force of attraction between two bodies is directly proportional to the product of
their masses.
• The gravitational force of attraction between two bodies is inversely proportional to the square of
the distance between their centers.
• Though the moon has less mass compared to the sun, the moon has greater effect of attraction
than sun because the distance between the moon and earth is very less.

HARNESSING TIDAL ENERGY

The major components of tidal power plant are:

1. Power house- It has turbines, electric generators and other auxiliary equipments.
2. The dam or barrage- The function is to form barrier between sea and basin or between twobasins.
3. Sluice ways- The function is to fill basin during high tides and empty basin during lowtides.

CLASSIFICATION OF TIDAL POWER PLANT

• Single basin arrangement
• Double basin arrangement
SINGLE BASIN ARRANGEMENT

• The general arrangement of a single basin system is shown above.

• Since only one basin interacts with the sea, power can be generated at regular intervals.
• A dam separates basin and sea. The power house is installed inside the dam.
• During High Tide, i.e., when the sea level rises, the turbine valves are opened and the sea water
flows into the basin through the turbine generating power.
• The power is generated till the level of sea water and basin is equal.
• The water is allowed to pass into the basin, till the level reaches its maximum position.
• During low tide, the level of basin is more than the level of seawater.
• After attaining sufficient head, the turbine valves are opened and water flows from basin to sea
through the turbine generating power.
• Tidal power plants normally use reversible water turbines, such that power is generated in both
the directions.

A Single basin arrangement system can be classified as:

1. Single-ebb system: Water is stored during High tide in the basin and power is generated only
during lowtide.
2. Single-Tide system: Power is generated only during High tide and it fills the basin. The water is
drained out during lowtide.
3. Double cycle system: Power is generated during both high tide and low tide.
DOUBLE BASIN ARRANGEMENT

• Figure above shows a schematic diagram of two-basin system.

• In the system, the two basins close to each other operate alternatively.
• One basin generates power when the tide is rising (basin getting filled up) and the other basin
generates power while the tide is falling (basin getting emptied).
• The two basins may have a common power house or may have separate power house for each
basin.
• In both the cases, the power can be generated continuously.

ADVANTAGES OF TIDAL POWER PLANT

➢ It is independent of rain, and inexhaustible.
➢ Large area of valuable land is not required.
➢ When a tidal power plant works in combination with thermal or hydro-electric power plant, peak
power demand can be met effectively.
➢ Free from pollution.

DISADVANTAGES OF TIDAL POWER PLANT

➢ Power generation is not uniform.
➢ Life of turbines reduces due to corrosive seawater.
➢ Construction of dams in sea is difficult.
➢ The power transmission cost is high as it is located away from load centres.
➢ The plant efficiency is not uniform.
➢ Sedimentation and siltation of basins.

WAVES ENERGY:

• Waves are caused by the transfer of energy from surface winds to sea. The rate of energy transfer
depends upon the wind speed & the distance over which interacts with water.

• The energy flux in waves is more than that available from solar, wind & other renewable
sources. The power in the waves is proportional to the square if its amplitude & to the period of
its motion. The energy stored is dissipated through friction at shore & turbulence at rates
depending on characteristics of wave & water depth.
 • Wave energy in open oceans is likely to be inaccessible. The resource potential near coastlines is
estimated as in excess of 20, 00,000 MW. Wave power is usually expressed in KW/m, repressing
the rate at which energy is transferred across a line of 1m length parallel to the wave front.

ADVANTAGES:
• The availability of large energy fluxes

• Productivity of wave conditions over periods of days,

DIFFICULTIES:
• Irregularity of wave patterns in amplitude, phase & direction, which makes it difficult to extract
power efficiently.

• The power extraction system is exposed to occasional extreme stormy conditions.

• Peak power of deep water waves is available in open sea, where is difficult to construct, operate
& maintain a system & transmit power to the store,

• The slow & irregular motion of wave is required to be coupled to be electrical generator
requiring high & constant speed motion.

GEOTHERMAL ENERGY:

• Geothermal energy is energy coming out of the molten interior (in the form of heat) of the earth
towards the surface. Volcanoes, Geysers, Hot springs & boiling mud pots are visible evidence of
the great reservoirs of heat that lies within the earth.
• Most Geothermal energy produces low grade heat at about 50-70˚c which can be used directly
for thermal applications.
• Occasionally, geothermal heat is available at temperature about 90˚c & so electrical power
production from turbines can be contemplated.
• Because of non-homogeneous in the earth crust, there are numerous local hot spots just below the
surface where the temperature is in fact much higher than the average value expected. Ground
water comes into contact with the hot rocks in some of those locations & as a result, dry steam
wet & hot water or hot water alone is formed. A well drilled to these locations causes the
steam/water to emerge at the surface where its energy can be utilized either for generating
electricity or for space heating.
Two ways of electrical power production from geothermal:

1] Heat energy is transformed to a working fluid which operates the power cycle. This may be
particularly useful at a place of fresh volcanic activity. Where the molten interior mass of earth vents to
the surface through fissures & substantially at high temperature, such as between 450 to 550˚c can be
found. By embedding coil of pipes & sending water through them can be raised.

2] Hot geothermal water & or steam is used to operate the turbines directly. From the well head of the
steam is transmitted by pipe lines up to 1m in dia over distance up to about 3 Km to the power station.
Water separators are usually required to separate the moisture & solid particles from steam.
 • The earth‘s heat content is about 1031 J. This heat naturally flows to the surface by conduction at
a rate of 44.2 Tetra watts.
• The heat inside the earth is intense enough to melt rocks. Those molten rocks are called Magma.
Because magma is less dense than the rocks so it rises to the surface. Sometimes magma escapes
through cracks in the earth‘s crust, empting out of volcanoes as part of lava.
• But most of the time magma stays beneath the surface, heating surrounding rocks & the water
that has become trapped within these rocks. Sometimes that water escapes through cracks in the
earth to form pools of hot water [hot springs] or burst of hot water & steam [geysers].

ADVANTAGES:

• It is reliable source of energy

• It is available 24 hours/day
• It is available is independent of weather
• It has an inherent storage future, so no extra storage facility is required
• Geo thermal plants require little land area.
DISADVANTAGES:
• Generally, energy is available as low grade heat
• Continuous extraction of heated ground water may leads to subsidence[setting or slumping of
land]
• Geo thermal fluid also brings with it the dissolved gases & solute [as high as 25 Kg/m3] which
leads to air & land pollution.
• Drilling operation leads to noise pollution
• Thermal energy cannot be distributed easily over long distances [longer than ̴30 Km]
• Corrosive & abrasive geo thermal fluid reduces the life of plants.

Applications:
1] Direct heat use, 2] Electric power generation.

TAR SANDS:

• Tar sand or oil sands is an expression used to describe porous sandstone deposits impregnated
with heavy viscous oils called bitumen or simply deposits of heavy oils.
• The above schematic diagram indicating the processes involved in producing synthetic crude oil
from tar sands made up of sand stone deposits containing bitumen.
• The sands obtained from surface mining are first passed through a conditioning drum where
water, steam & caustic soda are added & slurry is formed. The slurry passes into a separation
tank where the coarse sand settles at the bottom & a froth of bitumen, water & fine mineral
matter forms on the top.
• The froth is diluted with naptha & subjected to centrifugal action. As a result, fine mineral matter
& water is removed. After this, the naptha is recovered & recycled, & the bitumen obtained is
subjected to hydro processing & desulphurization to produce synthetic crude oil.
OIL SHALE:

Fig. a. Oil shale Fig. b. Production of crude oil from oil shale

Oil shale [a sedimentary rock] refers to a finely textured rock mixed with a solid organic material called
kerogen. When crushed, it can be burnt directly [like coal] & has a heating value ranging from 2000 to
17,000 KJ/Kg. It is used in this manner for generating electricity & supplying heat.

Alternatively, the oil shale can be converted to oil. This is done by heating crushed oil shale to about
500 ˚c in the absence of air. Under the conditions, pyrolysis occurs & the kerogen is converted to oil.

Demerits:

1] The use of oil shale is the environmental degradation associated with surface mining & with the
disposal of large amounts of sand & spent shale rock which remains after the crude oil is obtained.

2] A large amount of energy is consumed in producing oil from these sources.

SOLAR RADIATION
EXTRATERRESTRIAL RADIATION

The intensity of solar radiation keeps on attenuating as it propagates away from the surface of the sun,
though the wavelengths remain unchanged. Solar radiation incident on the outer atmosphere of the earth
is known as Extraterrestrial Radiation.

The extraterrestrial radiation deviates from solar constant value due to two reasons. The first is the
variation in the radiation emitted by the sun itself. The variation due to this reason is less than ±1.5 per
cent with different periodicities. The second is the variation of earth–sun distance arising from earth‟s
slightly elliptic path. The variation due to this reason is ±3 per cent and is given by:

Iext=Isc[1+0.033cos(360n/365)] W/m2

Where, n is the day of the year starting from January 1.

The extraterrestrial radiation, being outside the atmosphere, is not affected by changes in atmospheric
conditions. While passing through the atmosphere it is subjected to mechanisms of atmospheric
absorption and scattering depending on atmospheric conditions, depleting its intensity. A fraction of
scattered radiation is reflected back to space while remaining is directed downwards. Solar radiation that
reaches earth surface after passing through the earth‟s atmosphere is known as Terrestrial Radiation.

SPECTRAL ENERGY DISTRIBUTION OF SOLAR RADIATION

Solar radiation covers a continuous spectrum of electromagnetic radiation in a wide frequency range.
About 99% of the extraterrestrial radiation has wavelengths in the range from 0.2 to 4 µm with
maximum spectral intensity at
0.48 µm (green portion of visible range). About 6.4% of extraterrestrial radiation energy is contained in
the ultraviolet region (λ < 0,38 µm); another 48% is contained in the visible region (0.38 µm < λ < 0.78
µm) and the remaining 45.6% is contained in the infrared region (λ > 0.78 µm). There is almost
complete absorption of short-wave radiation in range (λ < 0.29 µm) and infrared radiation in range (λ >
2.3 µm) in the atmosphere. Thus, from the point of view of terrestrial applications of solar energy, the
radiation only in the range of wavelengths between 0.29 and 2.3 µm is significant. The spectral solar-
irradiation distribution, both for extraterrestrial and terrestrial radiation, is shown in Fig, the areas under
these curves indicate the total radiation intensities in W/m2respectively for extraterrestrial and terrestrial
regions.

SOLAR RADIATION DATA

The radiation data are mostly measured on a horizontal surface. Typical records of global and
diffused radiation versus solar time on a horizontal surface for a clear day and partially cloudy day
are shown in Fig.. Daily radiant energy is obtained from the area under the corresponding curve. The
monthly average of the daily radiation is obtained by averaging over a span of the corresponding month
and expressed in kJ/m2-day. An alternative unit for expressing solar radiation is langley per unit time,
where one langley is equal to 1 cal/ cm2.
 Fig: Daily variation of global and diffuse radiation on topical

Thus, solar radiation data are presented in three ways:

[1] Flow of energy per unit area per second, (kJ/m2-s)

[2] Flow of energy per unit area per hour, (kJ/ m2h)
[3] Flow of energy per unit area per day, (kJ/ m2-day)
The incident solar radiation is also a function of the orientation (or tilt, due south in the northern
hemisphere) of a solar collector from the horizontal. A typical pattern of relative irradiation
throughout a year for three tilt angles, equal to (i) latitude, (ii) latitude -15o and (iii) latitude +15o is
shown in Fig. The radiation pattern indicates favoring of a certain tilt during certain periods of the
year. Therefore, seasonal adjustments of the tilt angle may result in enhanced radiation collection.
However, the overall trategy changes from place to place and also on the type of application.
 Fig : Relative irradiation at tilted surfaces throuhout a year

The maximum solar radiation is received on a collector surface placed normal to incident
rays. But as the position of the sun in the sky changes throughout the day, the collector has to
adjust itself continuously to collect maximum radiation. Therefore, maximum energy can be
collected if the collector tracks the sun along two axes. However, providing for two-axis
tracking is expensive and complicated. A compromising but less expensive option is to fix
the collector at a suitable tilt and track the sun along a single axis only. The most cost-effective
method with further compromise in the performance is to have a fix orientation for a collector
and possibly with some arrangement for seasonal adjustments only.

For designing a solar system or for predicting the potential of any solar application at a location,
we need monthly average, daily solar radiation data (both global and diffused) on a horizontal
and possibly at certain positions of the tilt angle of the surface. These data are measured at
certain measuring stations in a country (at present 16 locations in case of India) and computed
for other locations. This record is produced in the form of charts and tables and an atlas is
prepared to help in solar-systems design. The typical record of measured daily solar radiation
data for New Delhi is shown in Tables C1, C2 and C3 in Appendix C.

Solar Radiation Outside the Earth’s Surface:

Sun is a large sphere of very hot gases, the heat being generated by various kinds of fusion
reactions. It’s diameter is 1.39X106km, while that of the earth is 1.27X104 km. It subtends an
angle of 32minutes at the earth’s surface. This is because it is also at large distance. Thus the
beam radiation received from the sun on the earth is almost parallel. The brightness of the sun
varies from it’s center to it’s edge. However for engineering calculations. It is customary to
assume that the brightness all over the solar disc uniform.
Solar Constant(Isc):

It is the rate at which energy is received from the sun on a unit area perpendicular to the ray’s of
the sun , at the mean distance of the earth from the sun. Based on the measurements made up to
1970 a standard value of 1353 W/m2 was adopted in 1971. However based on subsequent
measurements, a revised value of 1367 W/m2 has been recommended.

The earth revolves around the sun in an elliptical orbit having a very small eccentricity and the
sun at the foci. Consequently, the distance between earth and sun varies a little through the year.
Because of this variation, the extra terrestrial flux also varies.

Solar Radiation Received at the Earth’s surface:

Solar radiation received at the earth’s surface is in the attenuated form because it is subjected to
the mechanisms of absorption and scattering as it passes through the earth’s atmosphere (Figure
below).

Absorption occurs primarily because of the presence of ozone and water vapour in the
atmosphere and lesser extent due to other gases( like CO2, NO2, CO,O2 and CH4) and particulate
matter. It results in an increase in the internal energy of the atmosphere. On the other hand,
scattering occurs due to all gaseous molecules as well as particulate matter in the atmosphere.
The scattered radiation is redistributed in all directions, some going back to the space and some
reaching the earth’s surface.

Solar radiation received at the earth’s surface without change of direction i.e, in line with the sun
is called direct radiation or beam radiation. The radiation received at the earth’s surface from all
parts of sky’s hemisphere (after being subjected to scattering in the atmosphere) is called diffuse
radiation. The sum of beam radiation and diffuse radiation is called as total or global radiation.
Instruments used for measuring solar radiation:

Pyranometer:

A pyranometer is an instrument which measure’s either global or diffuse radiation falling on a

horizontal surface over a hemispherical field of view.A sketch of one type of pyranometer as
installed for measuring global radiation is shown in the following figure.

1.Black surface,
2. Glass domes ,
3. Guard plate
4. Leveling screws,
5.mounting
plate,
6. Grouted bolts,
7.platform.

Pyranometer consists of a black surface which heats up when exposed to solar radiation. It’s
temperature increases until the rate of heat gain by solar radiation equals the rate of heat loss by
convection, conduction and radiation. The hot junctions of thermopile are attached to the black
surface, while the cold junctions are located under a guard plate so that they do not receive the
radiation directly. As a result an emf is generated. This emf which is usually in the range of 0 t0
10mv can be read, recorded or integrated over a period of time and is a measure of global
radiation.

The pyranometer can also be used for measurement of diffuse radiation. This is done by
mounting it at the center of a semi circular shading ring. The shading ring is fixed in such a way
that it’s plane is parallel to the plane of path of sun’s daily movement across the sky and it
shades the thermopile element and two galss domes of pyranometer at all the times from direct
sun shine. Consequently the pyranometer measures only the diffuse radiation received from the
sky.

Pyrheliometer

This is an instrument which measures beam radiation falling on a surface normal to the sun’s
rays. In contrast to a pyranometer, the black absorber plate (with hot junctions of a thermopile
attached to it) is located at the base of a collimating tube. The tube is aligned with the direction
of the sun’s rays with the help of a two-axis tracking mechanism and alignment indicator. Thus
the black plate receives only beam radiation and a small amount of diffuse radiation falling
within the acceptance angle of the instrument.

The Following figure shows a pyrheliometer

1.tube blackened on inside

surface,
2.baffle, 3.Alignment indicator,
4. Black absorber plate
5.thermopile junctions
6.two-axis tracking mechanism

Sunshine Recorder:

(1) Principles and Structure

A Campbell-Stokes sunshine recorder concentrates sunlight through a glass sphere onto a

recording card placed at its focal point. The length of the burn trace left on the card represents
the sunshine duration. The device’s structure is shown in Figure (a). A homogeneous
transparent glass sphere L is supported on an arc XY, and is focused so that an image of the
sun is formed on recording paper placed in a metal bowl FF' attached to the arc. The glass
sphere is concentric to this bowl, which has three partially overlapping grooves into which
recording cards for use in the summer, winter or spring and autumn are set (Figure (b)). Three
different recording cards (Figure (c)) are used depending on the season. The focus shifts as
the sun moves, and a burn trace is left on the recording card at the focal point. A burn trace at
a particular point indicates the presence of sunshine at that time, and the recording card is
scaled with hour marks so that the exact time of sunshine occurrence can be ascertained.
Measuring the overall length of burn traces reveals the sunshine duration for that day. For
exact measurement, the sunshine recorder must be accurately adjusted for planar leveling,
meridional direction and latitude. Campbell-Stokes and Jordan sunshine recorders mark the
occurrence of sunshine on recording paper at a position corresponding to the azimuth of the
sun at the site, and the time of sunshine occurrence is expressed in local apparent time.
 Fig: Sunshine recorder [a] Structure [b] Cross section of bowl and grooves
[c] Recording cards

(2) Reading of Recording Paper

To obtain uniform results for observation of sunshine duration with a Campbell-Stokes sunshine
recorder, the following points should be noted when reading records:
(a) If the burn trace is distinct and rounded at the ends, subtract half of the curvature radius of the
trace’s ends from the trace length at both ends. Usually, this is equivalent to subtracting 0.1 hours
from the length of each burn trace.
(b) If the burn trace has a circular form, take the radius as its length. If there are multiple circular
burns, count two or three as a sunshine duration of 0.1 hours, and four, five or six as 0.2 hours.
Count sunshine duration this way in increments of 0.1 hours.
(c) If the burn trace is narrow, or if the recording card is only slightly discolored, measure its
entire length.
(d) If a distinct burn trace diminishes in width by a third or more, subtract 0.1 hours from the
entire length for each place of diminishing width. However, the subtraction should not exceed
half the total length of the burn trace.

Actinometer:
An actinometer is a device that is used to measure the intensity of solar radiation. It
involves a chemistry technique that determines the number of photons by measuring the
rate of change of photo-induced responses in a chemical system.
The actinometer was invented by John Herschel in 1825. It works based on the principle that the
rate of photolytic conversion of molecules within an actinometer cell is equal to the rate of
absorption of photons in the actinometer.

A physical device such as a bolometer, photodiode, and photomultiplier can be employed to

convert the incident photon energy into a quantifiable electrical signal. However, a chemical
actinometer is the most widely used device in which the quantum yield of a reference substance
undergoing a photochemical reaction is determined and calibrated.

For an efficient actinometer, this quantum yield has to be independent of oxygen, trace
impurities, temperature, and excitation wavelength.

Working Principle

There are three steps to follow to operate a chemical actinometer:

• First, the gas of interest is filled into a photolysis reactor.
• Then, the actinometer is exposed to heat radiation.
• Finally, the photochemical rate is measured.

In this process, the actinometer gas is exposed to actinic flux without significantly altering the radiation
intensity or spectral composition. For this reason, a transparent quartz cell with a suitable geometrical
shape is employed, and gases with small optical absorbance values are used. Based on these conditions,
the photolysis frequency can be easily evaluated.

Modes of Operation

There are two basic modes of actinometric operation: static batch mode and flowing gas mode.
In the static batch mode, the photolysis reactor is filled with actinometer gas, sealed off by a gas
valve, and covered with an opaque hood to prevent exposure to sunlight. During measurement,
the actinometer is uncovered and exposed to heat radiation for a fixed interval of time. Following
this, the actinometer is closed again and analyzed for changes in the gas composition.
In the flowing gas mode, the actinometer gas is constantly passed into the reactor that is exposed
to solar radiation. In this case, the time interval is considered to be the mean residence time of the
gas in the illuminated reactor. When the gas passes through the reactor, its composition is
analyzed using an online gas detector. Photolysis frequencies can be continuously monitored in
this mode.

Applications

Actinometers are chiefly used in meteorology to measure solar radiation emitted by the sun,
reflected by the earth or scattered by the atmosphere. They are used in photochemical
experiments that involve complex irradiation geometry. Besides, they serve as a first choice for
calibrating photochemical detectors used for radiation measurements.

Bolometer:
An instrument that is used to detect as well as measure the microwave energy radiation & heat is
known as a bolometer.
Bolometer Working

A bolometer includes an absorptive part that is made up of a slight metal layer. The connection of
this part can be done through a thermal reservoir with the help of a thermal link. Once radiation
hits the absorptive part, then its temperature will be a change within the temperature. So
compared with reservoir temperature, this temperature is high because of the radiation absorption
using the absorptive part.

The thermal time constant of intrinsic can be equivalent to the heat capacity ratio among the
absorptive element as well as the reservoir. Therefore, the temperature change is measured
directly through a resistive thermometer that is connected to the absorptive part. Sometimes, the
absorptive parts resistance is used for calculating the change in temperature.