Learning

Learning is the process of acquiring new understanding, knowledge, behaviors, skills, values, attitudes,
and preferences.[1] The ability to learn is possessed by humans, non-human animals, and some
machines; there is also evidence for some kind of learning in certain plants.[2] Some learning is
immediate, induced by a single event (e.g. being burned by a hot stove), but much skill and knowledge
accumulate from repeated experiences.[3] The changes induced by learning often last a lifetime, and it is
hard to distinguish learned material that seems to be "lost" from that which cannot be retrieved.[4]

Human learning starts at birth (it might even start before[5] in terms of an embryo's need for both
interaction with, and freedom within its environment within the womb.[6]) and continues until death as
a consequence of ongoing interactions between people and their environment. The nature and processes
involved in learning are studied in many established fields (including educational psychology,
neuropsychology, experimental psychology, cognitive sciences, and pedagogy), as well as emerging fields
of knowledge (e.g. with a shared interest in the topic of learning from safety events such as incidents/
accidents,[7] or in collaborative learning health systems[8]). Research in such fields has led to the
identification of various sorts of learning. For example, learning may occur as a result of habituation, or
classical conditioning, operant conditioning or as a result of more complex activities such as play, seen
only in relatively intelligent animals.[9][10] Learning may occur consciously or without conscious
awareness. Learning that an aversive event cannot be avoided or escaped may result in a condition
called learned helplessness.[11] There is evidence for human behavioral learning prenatally, in which
habituation has been observed as early as 32 weeks into gestation, indicating that the central nervous
system is sufficiently developed and primed for learning and memory to occur very early on in
development.[12]

Play has been approached by several theorists as a form of learning. Children experiment with the
world, learn the rules, and learn to interact through play. Lev Vygotsky agrees that play is pivotal for
children's development, since they make meaning of their environment through playing educational
games. For Vygotsky, however, play is the first form of learning language and communication, and the
stage where a child begins to understand rules and symbols.[13] This has led to a view that learning in
organisms is always related to semiosis,[14] and is often associated with representational systems/
activity.[15]

Types
There are various functional categorizations of memory which have developed. Some memory
researchers distinguish memory based on the relationship between the stimuli involved (associative vs
non-associative) or based to whether the content can be communicated through language (declarative/
explicit vs procedural/implicit). Some of these categories can, in turn, be parsed into sub-types. For
instance, declarative memory comprises both episodic and semantic memory.

Non-associative learning
Non-associative learning refers to "a relatively permanent change in the strength of response to a single
stimulus due to repeated exposure to that stimulus."[16] This definition exempts the changes caused by
sensory adaptation, fatigue, or injury.[17]

Non-associative learning can be divided into habituation and sensitization.

Habituation
Habituation is an example of non-associative learning in which one or more components of an innate
response (e.g., response probability, response duration) to a stimulus diminishes when the stimulus is
repeated. Thus, habituation must be distinguished from extinction, which is an associative process. In
operant extinction, for example, a response declines because it is no longer followed by a reward. An
example of habituation can be seen in small song birds—if a stuffed owl (or similar predator) is put into
the cage, the birds initially react to it as though it were a real predator. Soon the birds react less, showing
habituation. If another stuffed owl is introduced (or the same one removed and re-introduced), the birds
react to it again as though it were a predator, demonstrating that it is only a very specific stimulus that is
habituated to (namely, one particular unmoving owl in one place). The habituation process is faster for
stimuli that occur at a high rather than for stimuli that occur at a low rate as well as for the weak and
strong stimuli, respectively.[18] Habituation has been shown in essentially every species of animal, as
well as the sensitive plant Mimosa pudica[19] and the large protozoan Stentor coeruleus.[20] This
concept acts in direct opposition to sensitization.[18]

Sensitization
Sensitization is an example of non-associative learning in which the progressive amplification of a
response follows repeated administrations of a stimulus.[21] This is based on the notion that a defensive
reflex to a stimulus such as withdrawal or escape becomes stronger after the exposure to a different
harmful or threatening stimulus.[22] An everyday example of this mechanism is the repeated tonic
stimulation of peripheral nerves that occurs if a person rubs their arm continuously. After a while, this
stimulation creates a warm sensation that can eventually turn painful. This pain results from a
progressively amplified synaptic response of the peripheral nerves. This sends a warning that the
stimulation is harmful.[23] Sensitization is thought to underlie both adaptive as well as maladaptive
learning processes in the organism.[24]

Active learning
Active learning occurs when a person takes control of his/her learning experience. Since understanding
information is the key aspect of learning, it is important for learners to recognize what they understand
and what they do not. By doing so, they can monitor their own mastery of subjects. Active learning
encourages learners to have an internal dialogue in which they verbalize understandings. This and other
meta-cognitive strategies can be taught to a child over time. Studies within metacognition have proven
the value in active learning, claiming that the learning is usually at a stronger level as a result.[25] In
addition, learners have more incentive to learn when they have control over not only how they learn but
also what they learn.[26] Active learning is a key characteristic of student-centered learning. Conversely,
passive learning and direct instruction are characteristics of teacher-centered learning (or traditional
education).

Associative learning
Associative learning is the process by which a person or animal learns an association between two
stimuli or events.[27] In classical conditioning, a previously neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with a
reflex-eliciting stimulus until eventually the neutral stimulus elicits a response on its own. In operant
conditioning, a behavior that is reinforced or punished in the presence of a stimulus becomes more or
less likely to occur in the presence of that stimulus.

Operant conditioning
Operant conditioning is a way in which behavior can be shaped or modified according to the desires of
the trainer or head individual. Operant conditioning uses the thought that living things seek pleasure
and avoid pain, and that an animal or human can learn through receiving either reward or punishment
at a specific time called trace conditioning. Trace conditioning is the small and ideal period of time
between the subject performing the desired behavior, and receiving the positive reinforcement as a
result of their performance. The reward needs to be given immediately after the completion of the
wanted behavior.[28]

Operant conditioning is different from classical conditioning in that it shapes behavior not solely on
bodily reflexes that occur naturally to a specific stimulus, but rather focuses on the shaping of wanted
behavior that requires conscious thought, and ultimately requires learning.[29]

Punishment and reinforcement are the two principal ways in which operant conditioning occurs.
Punishment is used to reduce unwanted behavior, and ultimately (from the learner's perspective) leads
to avoidance of the punishment, not necessarily avoidance of the unwanted behavior. Punishment is not
an appropriate way to increase wanted behavior for animals or humans. Punishment can be divided into
two subcategories, positive punishment and negative punishment. Positive punishment is when an
aversive aspect of life or thing is added to the subject, for this reason it is called positive punishment.
For example, the parent spanking their child would be considered a positive punishment, because a
spanking was added to the child. Negative punishment is considered the removal of something loved or
desirable from the subject. For example, when a parent puts his child in time out, in reality, the child is
losing the opportunity to be with friends, or to enjoy the freedom to do as he pleases. In this example,
negative punishment is the removal of the child's desired rights to play with his friends etc.[30][31]

Reinforcement on the other hand is used to increase a wanted behavior either through negative
reinforcement or positive reinforcement. Negative reinforcement is defined by removing an undesirable
aspect of life, or thing. For example, a dog might learn to sit as the trainer scratches his ears, which
ultimately is removing his itches (undesirable aspect). Positive reinforcement is defined by adding a
desirable aspect of life or thing. For example, a dog might learn to sit if he receives a treat. In this
example the treat was added to the dog's life.[30][31]

Classical conditioning
The typical paradigm for classical conditioning involves repeatedly pairing an unconditioned stimulus
(which unfailingly evokes a reflexive response) with another previously neutral stimulus (which does not
normally evoke the response). Following conditioning, the response occurs both to the unconditioned
stimulus and to the other, unrelated stimulus (now referred to as the "conditioned stimulus"). The
response to the conditioned stimulus is termed a conditioned response. The classic example is Ivan
Pavlov and his dogs.[22] Pavlov fed his dogs meat powder, which naturally made the dogs salivate—
salivating is a reflexive response to the meat powder. Meat powder is the unconditioned stimulus (US)
and the salivation is the unconditioned response (UR). Pavlov rang a bell before presenting the meat
powder. The first time Pavlov rang the bell, the neutral stimulus, the dogs did not salivate, but once he
put the meat powder in their mouths they began to salivate. After numerous pairings of bell and food,
the dogs learned that the bell signaled that food was about to come, and began to salivate when they
heard the bell. Once this occurred, the bell became the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the salivation to
the bell became the conditioned response (CR). Classical conditioning has been demonstrated in many
species. For example, it is seen in honeybees, in the proboscis extension reflex paradigm.[32] It was
recently also demonstrated in garden pea plants.[33]

Another influential person in the world of classical conditioning is John B. Watson. Watson's work was
very influential and paved the way for B.F. Skinner's radical behaviorism. Watson's behaviorism (and
philosophy of science) stood in direct contrast to Freud and other accounts based largely on
introspection. Watson's view was that the introspective method was too subjective and that we should
limit the study of human development to directly observable behaviors. In 1913, Watson published the
article "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views", in which he argued that laboratory studies should serve
psychology best as a science. Watson's most famous, and controversial, experiment was "Little Albert",
where he demonstrated how psychologists can account for the learning of emotion through classical
conditioning principles.

Observational learning
Observational learning is learning that occurs through observing the behavior of others. It is a form of
social learning which takes various forms, based on various processes. In humans, this form of learning
seems to not need reinforcement to occur, but instead, requires a social model such as a parent, sibling,
friend, or teacher with surroundings.

Imprinting
Imprinting is a kind of learning occurring at a particular life stage that is rapid and apparently
independent of the consequences of behavior. In filial imprinting, young animals, particularly birds,
form an association with another individual or in some cases, an object, that they respond to as they
would to a parent. In 1935, the Austrian Zoologist Konrad Lorenz discovered that certain birds follow
and form a bond if the object makes sounds.

Play
Play generally describes behavior with no particular end in itself, but that improves performance in
similar future situations. This is seen in a wide variety of vertebrates besides humans, but is mostly
limited to mammals and birds. Cats are known to play with a ball of string when young, which gives
them experience with catching prey. Besides inanimate objects, animals may play with other members
of their own species or other animals, such as orcas playing with seals they have caught. Play involves a
significant cost to animals, such as increased vulnerability to predators and the risk of injury and
possibly infection. It also consumes energy, so there must be significant benefits associated with play for
it to have evolved. Play is generally seen in younger animals, suggesting a link with learning. However, it
may also have other benefits not associated directly with learning, for example improving physical
fitness.

Play, as it pertains to humans as a form of learning is central to a child's learning and development.
Through play, children learn social skills such as sharing and collaboration. Children develop emotional
skills such as learning to deal with the emotion of anger, through play activities. As a form of learning,
play also facilitates the development of thinking and language skills in children.[34]

There are five types of play:

1. Sensorimotor play aka functional play, characterized by the repetition of an activity

2. Roleplay occurs starting at the age of three
3. Rule-based play where authoritative prescribed codes of conduct are primary
4. Construction play involves experimentation and building
5. Movement play aka physical play[34]
These five types of play are often intersecting. All types of play generate thinking and problem-solving
skills in children. Children learn to think creatively when they learn through play.[35] Specific activities
involved in each type of play change over time as humans progress through the lifespan. Play as a form
of learning, can occur solitarily, or involve interacting with others.

Enculturation
Enculturation is the process by which people learn values and behaviors that are appropriate or
necessary in their surrounding culture.[36] Parents, other adults, and peers shape the individual's
understanding of these values.[36] If successful, enculturation results in competence in the language,
values, and rituals of the culture.[36] This is different from acculturation, where a person adopts the
values and societal rules of a culture different from their native one.

Multiple examples of enculturation can be found cross-culturally. Collaborative practices in the

Mazahua people have shown that participation in everyday interaction and later learning activities
contributed to enculturation rooted in nonverbal social experience.[37] As the children participated in
everyday activities, they learned the cultural significance of these interactions. The collaborative and
helpful behaviors exhibited by Mexican and Mexican-heritage children is a cultural practice known as
being "acomedido".[38] Chillihuani girls in Peru described themselves as weaving constantly, following
behavior shown by the other adults.[39]

Episodic learning
Episodic learning is a change in behavior that occurs as a result of an event.[40] For example, a fear of
dogs that follows being bitten by a dog is episodic learning. Episodic learning is so named because
events are recorded into episodic memory, which is one of the three forms of explicit learning and
retrieval, along with perceptual memory and semantic memory.[41] Episodic memory remembers events
and history that are embedded in experience and this is distinguished from semantic memory, which
attempts to extract facts out of their experiential context[42] or – as some describe – a timeless
organization of knowledge.[43] For instance, if a person remembers the Grand Canyon from a recent
visit, it is an episodic memory. He would use semantic memory to answer someone who would ask him
information such as where the Grand Canyon is. A study revealed that humans are very accurate in the
recognition of episodic memory even without deliberate intention to memorize it.[44] This is said to
indicate a very large storage capacity of the brain for things that people pay attention to.[44]

Multimedia learning
Multimedia learning is where a person uses both auditory and visual stimuli to learn information.[45]
This type of learning relies on dual-coding theory.[46]

E-learning and augmented learning

Electronic learning or e-learning is computer-enhanced learning. A specific and always more diffused e-
learning is mobile learning (m-learning), which uses different mobile telecommunication equipment,
such as cellular phones.

When a learner interacts with the e-learning environment, it is called augmented learning. By adapting
to the needs of individuals, the context-driven instruction can be dynamically tailored to the learner's
natural environment. Augmented digital content may include text, images, video, audio (music and
voice). By personalizing instruction, augmented learning has been shown to improve learning
performance for a lifetime.[47] See also minimally invasive education.

Moore (1989)[48] purported that three core types of interaction are necessary for quality, effective online
learning:

▪ Learner–learner (i.e. communication between and among peers with or without the teacher present),
▪ Learner–instructor (i.e. student-teacher communication), and
▪ Learner–content (i.e. intellectually interacting with content that results in changes in learners'
understanding, perceptions, and cognitive structures).
In his theory of transactional distance, Moore (1993)[49] contented that structure and interaction or
dialogue bridge the gap in understanding and communication that is created by geographical distances
(known as transactional distance).

Rote learning
Rote learning is memorizing information so that it can be recalled by the learner exactly the way it was
read or heard. The major technique used for rote learning is learning by repetition, based on the idea
that a learner can recall the material exactly (but not its meaning) if the information is repeatedly
processed. Rote learning is used in diverse areas, from mathematics to music to religion.

Meaningful learning
Meaningful learning is the concept that learned knowledge (e.g., a fact) is fully understood to the extent
that it relates to other knowledge. To this end, meaningful learning contrasts with rote learning in which
information is acquired without regard to understanding. Meaningful learning, on the other hand,
implies there is a comprehensive knowledge of the context of the facts learned.[50]

Evidence-based learning
Evidence-based learning is the use of evidence from well designed scientific studies to accelerate
learning. Evidence-based learning methods such as spaced repetition can increase the rate at which a
student learns.[51]

Formal learning
Formal learning is a deliberate way attaining of knowledge, which
takes place within a teacher-student environment, such as in a
school system or work environment.[52][53] The term formal learning
has nothing to do with the formality of the learning, but rather the
way it is directed and organized. In formal learning, the learning or
training departments set out the goals and objectives of the learning
and oftentimes learners will be awarded with a diploma, or a type of
formal recognition.[52][54]

A depiction of the world's oldest

Non-formal learning continually operating university, the
University of Bologna, Italy
Non-formal learning is organized learning outside the formal
learning system. For example, learning by coming together with
people with similar interests and exchanging viewpoints, in clubs or in (international) youth
organizations, and workshops. From the organizer's point of reference, non-formal learning does not
always need a main objective or learning outcome. From the learner's point of view, non-formal
learning, although not focused on outcomes, often results in an intentional learning opportunity.[55]
Informal learning
Informal learning is less structured than "non-formal learning". It may occur through the experience of
day-to-day situations (for example, one would learn to look ahead while walking because of the possible
dangers inherent in not paying attention to where one is going). It is learning from life, during a meal at
the table with parents, during play, and while exploring etc.. For the learner, informal learning is most
often an experience of happenstance, and not a deliberately planned experience. Thus this does not
require enrolment into any class. Unlike formal learning, informal learning typically does not lead to
accreditation.[55] Informal learning begins to unfold as the learner ponders his or her situation. This
type of learning does not require a professor of any kind, and learning outcomes are unforeseen
following the learning experience.[56]

Informal learning is self-directed and because it focuses on day-to-day situations, the value of informal
learning can be considered high. As a result, information retrieved from informal learning experiences
will likely be applicable to daily life.[57] Children with informal learning can at times yield stronger
support than subjects with formal learning in the topic of mathematics.[58] Daily life experiences take
place in the workforce, family life, and any other situation that may arise during one's lifetime. Informal
learning is voluntary from the learner's viewpoint, and may require making mistakes and learning from
them. Informal learning allows the individual to discover coping strategies for difficult emotions that
may arise while learning. From the learner's perspective, informal learning can become purposeful,
because the learner chooses which rate is appropriate to learn and because this type of learning tends to
take place within smaller groups or by oneself.[57]

Nonformal learning and combined approaches

The educational system may use a combination of formal, informal, and nonformal learning methods.
The UN and EU recognize these different forms of learning (cf. links below). In some schools, students
can get points that count in the formal-learning systems if they get work done in informal-learning
circuits. They may be given time to assist international youth workshops and training courses, on the
condition they prepare, contribute, share, and can prove this offered valuable new insight, helped to
acquire new skills, a place to get experience in organizing, teaching, etc.

To learn a skill, such as solving a Rubik's Cube quickly, several factors come into play at once:

▪ Reading directions helps a player learn the patterns that solve the Rubik's Cube.
▪ Practicing the moves repeatedly helps build "muscle memory" and speed.
▪ Thinking critically about moves helps find shortcuts, which speeds future attempts.
▪ Observing the Rubik's Cube's six colors help anchor solutions in the mind.
▪ Revisiting the cube occasionally helps retain the skill.

Tangential learning
Tangential learning is the process by which people self-educate if a topic is exposed to them in a context
that they already enjoy. For example, after playing a music-based video game, some people may be
motivated to learn how to play a real instrument, or after watching a TV show that references Faust and
Lovecraft, some people may be inspired to read the original work.[59] Self-education can be improved
with systematization. According to experts in natural learning, self-oriented learning training has
proven an effective tool for assisting independent learners with the natural phases of learning.[60]

Extra Credits writer and game designer James Portnow was the first to suggest games as a potential
venue for "tangential learning".[61] Mozelius et al.[62] points out that intrinsic integration of learning
content seems to be a crucial design factor, and that games that include modules for further self-studies
tend to present good results. The built-in encyclopedias in the Civilization games are presented as an
example – by using these modules gamers can dig deeper for knowledge about historical events in the
gameplay. The importance of rules that regulate learning modules and game experience is discussed by
Moreno, C.,[63] in a case study about the mobile game Kiwaka. In this game, developed by Landka in
collaboration with ESA and ESO, progress is rewarded with educational content, as opposed to
traditional education games where learning activities are rewarded with gameplay.[64][65]

Dialogic learning
Dialogic learning is a type of learning based on dialogue.

Incidental learning
In incidental teaching learning is not planned by the instructor or the student, it occurs as a byproduct
of another activity — an experience, observation, self-reflection, interaction, unique event (e.g. in
response to incidents/accidents), or common routine task. This learning happens in addition to or apart
from the instructor's plans and the student's expectations. An example of incidental teaching is when the
instructor places a train set on top of a cabinet. If the child points or walks towards the cabinet, the
instructor prompts the student to say "train". Once the student says "train", he gets access to the train
set.

Here are some steps most commonly used in incidental teaching:[66]

▪ An instructor will arrange the learning environment so that necessary materials are within the
student's sight, but not within his reach, thus impacting his motivation to seek out those materials.
▪ An instructor waits for the student to initiate engagement.
▪ An instructor prompts the student to respond if needed.
▪ An instructor allows access to an item/activity contingent on a correct response from the student.
▪ The instructor fades out the prompting process over a period of time and subsequent trials.
Incidental learning is an occurrence that is not generally accounted for using the traditional methods of
instructional objectives and outcomes assessment. This type of learning occurs in part as a product of
social interaction and active involvement in both online and onsite courses. Research implies that some
un-assessed aspects of onsite and online learning challenge the equivalency of education between the
two modalities. Both onsite and online learning have distinct advantages with traditional on-campus
students experiencing higher degrees of incidental learning in three times as many areas as online
students. Additional research is called for to investigate the implications of these findings both
conceptually and pedagogically.[67]

Domains
Benjamin Bloom has suggested three domains of learning in his taxonomy which are:

▪ Cognitive: To recall, calculate, discuss, analyze, problem solve, etc.

▪ Psychomotor: To dance, swim, ski, dive, drive a car, ride a bike, etc.
▪ Affective: To like something or someone, love, appreciate, fear, hate, worship, etc.
These domains are not mutually exclusive. For example, in learning to play chess, the person must learn
the rules (cognitive domain)—but must also learn how to set up the chess pieces and how to properly
hold and move a chess piece (psychomotor). Furthermore, later in the game the person may even learn
to love the game itself, value its applications in life, and appreciate
its history (affective domain).[68]

Transfer
Transfer of learning is the application of skill, knowledge or
understanding to resolve a novel problem or situation that happens
when certain conditions are fulfilled. Research indicates that Future school (1901 or 1910)
learning transfer is infrequent; most common when "... cued,
primed, and guided..."[69] and has sought to clarify what it is, and
how it might be promoted through instruction.

Over the history of its discourse, various hypotheses and definitions have been advanced. First, it is
speculated that different types of transfer exist, including: near transfer, the application of skill to solve
a novel problem in a similar context; and far transfer, the application of skill to solve a novel problem
presented in a different context.[70] Furthermore, Perkins and Salomon (1992) suggest that positive
transfer in cases when learning supports novel problem solving, and negative transfer occurs when prior
learning inhibits performance on highly correlated tasks, such as second or third-language learning.[71]
Concepts of positive and negative transfer have a long history; researchers in the early 20th century
described the possibility that "...habits or mental acts developed by a particular kind of training may
inhibit rather than facilitate other mental activities".[72] Finally, Schwarz, Bransford and Sears (2005)
have proposed that transferring knowledge into a situation may differ from transferring knowledge out
to a situation as a means to reconcile findings that transfer may both be frequent and challenging to
promote.[73]

A significant and long research history has also attempted to explicate the conditions under which
transfer of learning might occur. Early research by Ruger, for example, found that the "level of
attention", "attitudes", "method of attack" (or method for tackling a problem), a "search for new points
of view", a "careful testing of hypothesis" and "generalization" were all valuable approaches for
promoting transfer.[74] To encourage transfer through teaching, Perkins and Salomon recommend
aligning ("hugging") instruction with practice and assessment, and "bridging", or encouraging learners
to reflect on past experiences or make connections between prior knowledge and current content.[71]

Factors affecting learning

Genetics
Some aspects of intelligence are inherited genetically, so different learners to some degree have different
abilities with regard to learning and speed of learning.

Socioeconomic and physical conditions

Problems like malnutrition, fatigue, and poor physical health can slow learning, as can bad ventilation
or poor lighting at home, and unhygienic living conditions.[75][76]

The design, quality, and setting of a learning space, such as a school or classroom, can each be critical to
the success of a learning environment. Size, configuration, comfort—fresh air, temperature, light,
acoustics, furniture—can all affect a student's learning. The tools used by both instructors and students
directly affect how information is conveyed, from the display and writing surfaces (blackboards,
markerboards, tack surfaces) to digital technologies. For example, if a room is too crowded, stress levels
rise, student attention is reduced, and furniture arrangement is restricted. If furniture is incorrectly
arranged, sightlines to the instructor or instructional material are limited and the ability to suit the
learning or lesson style is restricted. Aesthetics can also play a role, for if student morale suffers, so does
motivation to attend school.[77][78]

Psychological factors and teaching style

Intrinsic motivation, such as a student's own intellectual curiosity or desire to experiment or explore,
has been found to sustain learning more effectively than extrinsic motivations such as grades or parental
requirements. Rote learning involves repetition in order to reinforce facts in memory, but has been
criticized as ineffective and "drill and kill" since it kills intrinsic motivation. Alternatives to rote learning
include active learning and meaningful learning.

The speed, accuracy, and retention, depend upon aptitude, attitude, interest, attention, energy level, and
motivation of the students. Praising students who answer a question properly or give good results
should be praised. This encouragement increases their ability and helps them produce better results.
Certain attitudes, such as always finding fault in a student's answer or provoking or embarrassing the
student in front of a class are counterproductive.[79][80]

Certain techniques can increase long-term retention:[81]

▪ The spacing effect means that lessons or studying spaced out over time (spaced repetition) are
better than cramming
▪ Teaching material to other people
▪ "Self-explaining" (paraphrasing material to oneself) rather than passive reading
▪ Low-stakes quizzing

Epigenetic factors
The underlying molecular basis of learning appears to be dynamic changes in gene expression occurring
in brain neurons that are introduced by epigenetic mechanisms. Epigenetic regulation of gene
expression involves, most notably, chemical modification of DNA or DNA-associated histone proteins.
These chemical modifications can cause long-lasting changes in gene expression. Epigenetic
mechanisms involved in learning include the methylation and demethylation of neuronal DNA as well as
methylation, acetylation and deacetylation of neuronal histone proteins.

During learning, information processing in the brain involves induction of oxidative modification in
neuronal DNA followed by the employment of DNA repair processes that introduce epigenetic
alterations. In particular, the DNA repair processes of non-homologous end joining and base excision
repair are employed in learning and memory formation.[82][83]

General cognition-related factors

The nervous system continues to develop during adulthood until brain death. For example:

▪ physical exercise has neurobiological effects

▪ the consumption of foods (or nutrients), obesity,[84] alterations of the microbiome, drinks, dietary
supplements, recreational drugs and medications[85][86] may possibly also have effects on the
development of the nervous system
▪ various diseases, such as COVID-19, have effects on the development of the nervous system
 ▪ For example, several genes have been identified as to being associated with changes in brain
structure over lifetime and are potential Alzheimer's disease therapy-targets.[87][88]
▪ psychological events such as mental trauma and resilience-building
▪ exposure to environmental pollution and toxins such as air pollution may have effects on the further
development of the nervous system
▪ other activities may also have effects on the development of the nervous system, such as lifelong
learning, retraining, and types of media- and economic activities
▪ broadly, brain aging

Adult learning vs children's learning

Learning is often more efficient in children and takes longer or is more difficult with age. A study using
neuroimaging identified rapid neurotransmitter GABA boosting as a major potential explanation-
component for why that is.[89][90]

Children's brains contain more "silent synapses" that are inactive until recruited as part of
neuroplasticity and flexible learning or memories.[91][92] Neuroplasticity is heightened during critical or
sensitive periods of brain development, mainly referring to brain development during child
development.[93]

What humans learn at the early stages, and what they learn to apply, sets humans on course for life or
has a disproportional impact.[94] Adults usually have a higher capacity to select what they learn, to what
extent and how. For example, children may learn the given subjects and topics of school curricula via
classroom blackboard-transcription handwriting, instead of being able to choose specific topics/skills or
jobs to learn and the styles of learning. For instance, children may not have developed consolidated
interests, ethics, interest in purpose and meaningful activities, knowledge about real-world
requirements and demands, and priorities.

In animal evolution
Animals gain knowledge in two ways. First is learning—in which an animal gathers information about its
environment and uses this information. For example, if an animal eats something that hurts its
stomach, it learns not to eat that again. The second is innate knowledge that is genetically inherited. An
example of this is when a horse is born and can immediately walk. The horse has not learned this
behavior; it simply knows how to do it.[95] In some scenarios, innate knowledge is more beneficial than
learned knowledge. However, in other scenarios the opposite is true—animals must learn certain
behaviors when it is disadvantageous to have a specific innate behavior. In these situations, learning
evolves in the species.

Costs and benefits of learned and innate knowledge

In a changing environment, an animal must constantly gain new information to survive. However, in a
stable environment, this same individual needs to gather the information it needs once, and then rely on
it for the rest of its life. Therefore, different scenarios better suit either learning or innate knowledge.
Essentially, the cost of obtaining certain knowledge versus the benefit of already having it determines
whether an animal evolved to learn in a given situation, or whether it innately knew the information. If
the cost of gaining the knowledge outweighs the benefit of having it, then the animal does not evolve to
learn in this scenario—but instead, non-learning evolves. However, if the benefit of having certain
information outweighs the cost of obtaining it, then the animal is far more likely to evolve to have to
learn this information.[95]
Non-learning is more likely to evolve in two scenarios. If an environment is static and change does not
or rarely occurs, then learning is simply unnecessary. Because there is no need for learning in this
scenario—and because learning could prove disadvantageous due to the time it took to learn the
information—non-learning evolves. Similarly, if an environment is in a constant state of change,
learning is also disadvantageous, as anything learned is immediately irrelevant because of the changing
environment.[95] The learned information no longer applies. Essentially, the animal would be just as
successful if it took a guess as if it learned. In this situation, non-learning evolves. In fact, a study of
Drosophila melanogaster showed that learning can actually lead to a decrease in productivity, possibly
because egg-laying behaviors and decisions were impaired by interference from the memories gained
from the newly learned materials or because of the cost of energy in learning.[96]

However, in environments where change occurs within an animal's lifetime but is not constant, learning
is more likely to evolve. Learning is beneficial in these scenarios because an animal can adapt to the new
situation, but can still apply the knowledge that it learns for a somewhat extended period of time.
Therefore, learning increases the chances of success as opposed to guessing.[95] An example of this is
seen in aquatic environments with landscapes subject to change. In these environments, learning is
favored because the fish are predisposed to learn the specific spatial cues where they live.[97]

In plants
In recent years, plant physiologists have examined the physiology of plant behavior and cognition. The
concepts of learning and memory are relevant in identifying how plants respond to external cues, a
behavior necessary for survival. Monica Gagliano, an Australian professor of evolutionary ecology,
makes an argument for associative learning in the garden pea, Pisum sativum. The garden pea is not
specific to a region, but rather grows in cooler, higher altitude climates. Gagliano and colleagues' 2016
paper aims to differentiate between innate phototropism behavior and learned behaviors.[33] Plants use
light cues in various ways, such as to sustain their metabolic needs and to maintain their internal
circadian rhythms. Circadian rhythms in plants are modulated by endogenous bioactive substances that
encourage leaf-opening and leaf-closing and are the basis of nyctinastic behaviors.[98]

Gagliano and colleagues constructed a classical conditioning test in which pea seedlings were divided
into two experimental categories and placed in Y-shaped tubes.[33] In a series of training sessions, the
plants were exposed to light coming down different arms of the tube. In each case, there was a fan
blowing lightly down the tube in either the same or opposite arm as the light. The unconditioned
stimulus (US) was the predicted occurrence of light and the conditioned stimulus (CS) was the wind
blowing by the fan. Previous experimentation shows that plants respond to light by bending and
growing towards it through differential cell growth and division on one side of the plant stem mediated
by auxin signaling pathways.[99]

During the testing phase of Gagliano's experiment, the pea seedlings were placed in different Y-pipes
and exposed to the fan alone. Their direction of growth was subsequently recorded. The 'correct'
response by the seedlings was deemed to be growing into the arm where the light was "predicted" from
the previous day. The majority of plants in both experimental conditions grew in a direction consistent
with the predicted location of light based on the position of the fan the previous day.[33] For example, if
the seedling was trained with the fan and light coming down the same arm of the Y-pipe, the following
day the seedling grew towards the fan in the absence of light cues despite the fan being placed in the
opposite side of the Y-arm. Plants in the control group showed no preference to a particular arm of the
Y-pipe. The percentage difference in population behavior observed between the control and
experimental groups is meant to distinguish innate phototropism behavior from active associative
learning.[33]
While the physiological mechanism of associative learning in plants is not known, Telewski et al.
describes a hypothesis that describes photoreception as the basis of mechano-perception in plants.[100]
One mechanism for mechano-perception in plants relies on MS ion channels and calcium channels.
Mechanosensory proteins in cell lipid bilayers, known as MS ion channels, are activated once they are
physically deformed in response to pressure or tension. Ca2+ permeable ion channels are "stretch-
gated" and allow for the influx of osmolytes and calcium, a well-known second messenger, into the cell.
This ion influx triggers a passive flow of water into the cell down its osmotic gradient, effectively
increasing turgor pressure and causing the cell to depolarize.[100] Gagliano hypothesizes that the basis of
associative learning in Pisum sativum is the coupling of mechanosensory and photosensory pathways
and is mediated by auxin signaling pathways. The result is directional growth to maximize a plant's
capture of sunlight.[33]

Gagliano et al. published another paper on habituation behaviors in the mimosa pudica plant whereby
the innate behavior of the plant was diminished by repeated exposure to a stimulus.[19] There has been
controversy around this paper and more generally around the topic of plant cognition. Charles
Abrahmson, a psychologist and behavioral biologist, says that part of the issue of why scientists disagree
about whether plants have the ability to learn is that researchers do not use a consistent definition of
"learning" and "cognition".[101] Similarly, Michael Pollan, an author, and journalist, says in his piece The
Intelligent Plant that researchers do not doubt Gagliano's data but rather her language, specifically her
use of the term "learning" and "cognition" with respect to plants.[102] A direction for future research is
testing whether circadian rhythms in plants modulate learning and behavior and surveying researchers'
definitions of "cognition" and "learning".

Machine learning
Machine learning, a branch of artificial intelligence, concerns the
construction and study of systems that can learn from data. For
example, a machine learning system could be trained on email
messages to learn to distinguish between spam and non-spam
messages. Most of the Machine Learning models are based on
probabilistic theories where each input (e.g. an image ) is associated
with a probability to become the desired output.
1:50

Types Robots can learn to cooperate.

Phases

See also
▪ 21st century skills – Skills identified as being required for success in the 21st century
▪ Anticipatory socialization – Process in which people take on the values of groups that they aspire to
join
▪ Epistemology – Branch of philosophy concerning knowledge
▪ Implicit learning – in learning psychology
▪ Instructional theory – Theory that offers explicit guidance on how to better help people learn and
develop
▪ Learning sciences – Critical theory of learning
▪ Lifelong learning – Ongoing, voluntary, and self-motivated pursuit of knowledge
 ▪ Living educational theory
▪ Media psychology – Area of psychology
▪ Subgoal labeling – Cognitive process

Information theory
▪ Algorithmic information theory – Subfield of information theory and computer science
▪ Algorithmic probability – mathematical method of assigning a prior probability to a given observation
▪ Bayesian inference – Method of statistical inference
▪ Inductive logic programming – learning logic programs from data
▪ Inductive probability – Determining the probability of future events based on past events
▪ Information theory – Scientific study of digital information
▪ Minimum description length – Model selection principle
▪ Minimum message length – Formal information theory restatement of Occam's Razor
▪ Occam's razor – Philosophical problem-solving principle
▪ Solomonoff's theory of inductive inference – mathematical formalization of Occam's razor that,
assuming the world is generated by a computer program, the most likely one is the shortest, using
Bayesian inference
▪ AIXI – Mathematical formalism for artificial general intelligence

Types of education
▪ Autodidacticism – Independent education without the guidance of teachers
▪ Andragogy – Methods and principles in adult education
▪ Pedagogy – Theory and practice of education

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2/23/the-intelligent-plant). The New Yorker. ISSN 0028-792X (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0028-79
2X). Retrieved 2019-06-06.
Notes
▪ Mayer, R.E. (2001). Multimedia learning (https://archive.org/details/multimedialearni0000maye).
New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-78749-9.
▪ Paivio, A. (1971). Imagery and verbal processes (https://books.google.com/books?id=xmB9AAAAM
AAJ). New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. ISBN 978-0-03-085173-5.

Further reading
▪ Ulrich Boser (2019). Learn Better: Mastering the Skills for Success in Life, Business, and School, or
How to Become an Expert in Just About Anything. Rodale Books. ISBN 978-0593135310.

External links
▪ How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School (expanded edition) (https://nap.nationalaca
demies.org/read/9853/chapter/1) published by the National Academies Press
▪ Applying Science of Learning in Education: Infusing Psychological Science into the Curriculum (http
s://teachpsych.org/ebooks/asle2014/index.php/) published by the American Psychological
Association