UNIT 5

AIR DATA SYSTEMS AND AUTO PILOT

AIR DATA:
Air data is a measurement of the air mass surrounding an airplane. The two physical
characteristics measured are pressure and temperature. Air data is acquired through various
sensors on the aircraft and is used to calculate altitude, speed, rate of climb or decent, and
angle-of-attack or angle-of-sideslip.

PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

The pressure measurements consist of static pressure (Ps) and total pressure (Pt).

 Static Pressure (Ps) is the absolute pressure of still air surrounding the aircraft. This is the
barometric pressure at the altitude where the aircraft is traveling and is independent of any
pressure disturbances caused by the motion of the aircraft.
 Total Pressure (Pt) is the sum of the local atmospheric pressure (Ps) and the impact pressure
(Qc) caused by the aircraft's motion through the air.
 Impact Pressure (Qc) is the pressure a moving stream of air produces against a surface that
brings part of the moving stream to rest. It is the difference between the total pressure (Pt)
and the static pressure (Ps).
These pressure properties are related by the formula: Qc = Pt - Ps
Ps and Pt are acquired by one or more pitot static probes on the aircraft body. Qc is calculated
from these values. Ps is used to calculate the altitude of the aircraft. Qc is used to calculate
the speed of the aircraft.

ALTITUDE DETERMINATION
Altitude is derived from a series of equations using the static pressure. Altitude calculations
are based on a "standard atmosphere," which assumes a known relationship between pressure,
temperature and atmospheric density. Generally, the lower the static pressure, the higher the
altitude.

TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
Temperature is measured in order to calculate true airspeed (the actual speed of the plane
through air) from indicated airspeed and temperature. A temperature probe on the body of
the aircraft acquires temperature values. Pressure and temperature data sensing is sometimes
combined in the same sensor.

Indicated airspeed (IAS), true airspeed (TAS) and Mach number are versions of an aircraft’s
speed and have a temperature component incorporated.

AIR DATA COMPUTER (ADC)

An air data computer (ADC) is an essential avionics component found in modern aircraft.
This computer, rather than individual instruments, can determine the calibrated
airspeed, Mach number, altitude, and altitude trend data from an aircraft's pitot-static system.
In some very high speed aircraft such as the Space Shuttle, equivalent airspeed is calculated
instead of calibrated airspeed.
 These devices are usually autonomous and do not require pilot input, merely sending
continuously updated data to the recipient systems while the aircraft is powered up. Some,
like this ESCADU(Enhanced Software Configurble Air Data Unit) are software configurable
to suit many different aircraft applications.
ALTIMETER

 An Altimeter displays the aircraft’s current height above sea level (not ground level).
 A traditional Altimeter has three hands measuring hundreds, thousands, and ten
thousands of feet. These three hands move at different speeds and when the readings
are added together they give an indication of the aircrafts current altitude.
 The big hand is at hundreds of feet, the little hand is at thousands of feet. If there’s a
small white line, it reads in tens of thousands of feet.
 The altimeter works by utilizing a static port on the outside of the aircraft, increases
and decreases in altitude cause the device to expand and contract altering the reading
on the gauge. This information is used in conjunction with the pre-set barometric
pressure to provide a more accurate altitude reading.

Altimeter dial

Types of Altitudes

1. Indicated Altitude-The altitude indicated on the altimeter when the correct barometric
pressure is set.

2. True Altitude - Height above sea level (MSL).

3. Absolute Altitude - Height above ground level (AGL).

4. Pressure Altitude - The altitude indicated on the altimeter based on a ‘standard atmospheric
level’, this is sometimes used in flight planning calculations.

5. Density Altitude - This is the Pressure Altitude adjusted for temperature variations (density
altitude affects aircraft performance).

Working

 The Altimeter’s readings are based on barometric pressure, however due to the
constantly changing nature of barometric pressure the altimeter needs to be pre-set
prior to, and also during every flight as the barometric pressure changes.

Altimeter inside view

 The instrument senses reading by taking the ambient air pressure from the static port.
That air is plumbed through the back of the panel and into the back case of the
altimeter.
 Inside the altimeter is a sealed disc called an aneroid, or bellows. As the aircraft goes
up, the pressure inside the case decreases and the bellows expand. The opposite
happens as the aircraft descends.
 The bellows are mechanically connected to the face of the instrument through gears.
 It is Kollsman’s invention that assists the pilot: The window on the front of the
instrument allows the pilot to set the altimeter to the current local pressure, so it will
display an accurate height above sea level.

Errors Associated With Altimeters

1. Inconsistent Airflow:. Interrupted airflow to the external static port during flight can cause
the altimeter to give inaccurate readings. This is commonly associated with gusty wind
conditions, or during certain manoeuvres.
2. Elasticity: The continual expansion and contraction of the altimeter’s operating parts during
normal use can result in the parts losing some of their rigidity, becoming naturally more
flexible resulting in inaccurate readings

3. Pilot Error: The correct barometric pressure must be entered into the altimeter in order for it
to give accurate results. Pilot error is one of the most common reasons altimeters fail to give
accurate readings; a difference of 1″ Hg can cause an altitude deviation of 1,000 feet.

4. Air Density: The density of air alters from one area to the next, just as it does on the ground.
Errors in altimeter readings over long flights are commonly associated with changes in air
density.

5. Static Port Blockages: Something blocking the external static port would obviously prevent
the altimeter from detecting and changes to altitude.

AIR SPEED INDICATOR

 The Airspeed Indicator (ASI) is classified as a Pitot Static System,Iit measures the
speed of the aircraft as it moves through the air using air pressure differences from
both a static port and a pitot tube.
 A traditional ASI has graduated numbers over a round dial with a single clock-like
hand indicating the aircrafts current speed. This measurement is usually given in
knots (Nautical Miles per Hour) but sometimes in other forms such as kilometres per
hour.
 The primary use of the airspeed indicator is to provide performance guidance during
climb, descent, and landing.

Air speed indicator

Types of Airspeeds
1. Indicated Airspeed (IAS) - The Airspeed Indicator reading without any consideration for
atmospheric conditions or potential installation and instrument errors. The Indicated Airspeed
is used to give the manufacturers recommendations for aircraft performance indications
relating to take off, landing, and stall speeds.

2. Calibrated Airspeed (CAS) - The Indicated Airspeed corrected for installation error and
instrument error. Under certain operating conditions installation and instrument errors may
total several knots.

3. True Airspeed (TAS) - The Calibrated Airspeed corrected for altitude related atmospheric
conditions such as temperature variations and air density. The True Airspeed is used for flight
planning calculations.

4. Groundspeed (GS) - The aircraft’s actual speed over the ground, or the True Airspeed
adjusted for wind resistance factors (headwind, tailwind etc.).

Working

 Utilising both the static and pitot systems on an aircraft, the ASI takes into account
the airflow and equalising pressure differences from an external pitot tube and static
port to provide speed indications during flight.

 The static pressure is captured through the static port(s) located on the side of the
fuselage.The location is chosen at a location to most accurately detect prevailing
atmospheric pressure (parallel to air stream) and avoid dynamic (ram) air pressure.
Some aircraft will have more than one port to more accurately measure pressure
during slips and skids.
 "Ram air" is the air captured through the opening of the Pitot tube by the passage of
the aircraft through the air . Ram Air can also be termed as total pressure. Some Pitot
tubes are electrically heated to prevent clogging with ice.
 While on the ground the Airspeed Indicator will show a reading of zero as the
pressures are equal, when airborne, air entering the external pitot tube places pressure
on an internal diaphragm causing the Airspeed Indicator to move upwards.

 Airspeed indication is accomplished with the use of a thin, corrugated phosphor

bronze diaphragm (aneroid) which measures Dynamic Pressure of the air between the
Pitot tube (ram air) and static port (static pressure).

 Dynamic Pressure: Difference between the static (ambient) air pressure and the total
pressure caused by the motion of the aircraft through the air.
 Inside view of airspeed indicator

Errors Associated With Airspeed Indicators

1. Static Port Blockages: Debris, insects, water or ice blocking the external static port prevents
the Airspeed Indicator from giving a correct reading as air is unable to enter the port. If the
static system is blocked but the pitot tube remains clear, it is important to note that the
Airspeed Indicator will continues to operate but it will be giving you inaccurate readings.

2. Pitot Tube Blockages : As with above, any debris or blockages to the external pitot tube will
result in incorrect readings.

VERTICAL SPPED INDICATOR

 It is the amount of vertical component of displacement made by the aircraft in unit

time.
 Otherwise known as Rate of climb / rate of descent.
 Vertical speed is a common word and it can be positive or negative. If positive , it
stands for rate of climb.
 In modern aircraft ,like A320, it is a mode in AUTOPILOT. Pilot can select 3000 feet
V/S- vertical speed- and send this info to autopilot. So aircraft will descend or ascend
at this rate.
 When an aircraft is taking off / landing/ changing altitudes during flight, the velocity
of it is in the direction to which its nose points to, and can be divided into components
which are horizontal and vertical with respect to the sea surface on earth, and the
velocity which corresponds to the vertical component is known to be the vertical
velocity.
MACH NUMBER
 In fluid dynamics, the Mach number (M or Ma) is a dimensionless
quantity representing the ratio of flow velocity past a boundary to the local speed of
sound. It can be given by
M=U/C
where:
M is the Mach number,
u is the local flow velocity with respect to the boundaries
c is the speed of sound in the medium.
 The local speed of sound, and thereby the Mach number, depends on the condition of
the surrounding medium, in particular the temperature.
 The Mach number is primarily used to determine the incompressible and
incompressible flows.
 As the Mach number is a dimensionless quantity rather than a unit of measure, with
Mach, the number comes after the unit; the second Mach number is Mach 2 instead
of 2 Mach (or Machs).
 Based on the mach number, the flow regimes can be classified into subsonic(M<0.8),
transonic(0.8<M>1.2), supersonic(M>1) and hypersonic(M>5).

MACHMETER
 A machmeter is an instrument which provides an indication of the Mach Number,
(M), which is the ratio between the aircraft true air speed (TAS) and the local speed of
sound (LSS). This ratio, which equals one when the TAS is equal to the local speed of
sound, is very important in aircraft operating at high speed.

 The machmeter uses the aircraft pitot-static system to generate M and usually portrays
this on a simple needle and dial instrument, such as that shown below.

 Alternatively, the machmeter may be combined with the Air Speed Indicator (ASI), in
which case it is often referred to as a Combined Speed Indicator (CSI).

 Early Machmeters had two barometric capsules (much like those in altimeters and
airspeed indicators) to measure total and static pressure, and convert those into Mach
 number with some clever mechanical cogs and wheels and levers that moved the
needle directly.

 In Concorde, total and static pressure are measured in the ADC (air data computer)
and converted into electrical signals, which are then used to compute the Mach
number, also in the form of an electrical signal, which is sent to the Mach meter.
So the Mach meter in front of the pilot is only an indicator, the 'hard work' is done in
the ADC.

 High speed aircraft, including airliners and business jets, have limiting mach numbers
which must not be deliberately exceeded. If the aircraft is deliberately or accidentally
allowed to exceed its limiting mach, shock waves are likely to form on the aerofoils
and can result in buffet or mach tuck.

 Some aircraft use a constant mach number (rather than constant speed) technique for
cruise operations. Constant mach technique may be used to separate aircraft on the
same track and at the same altitude whilst in a non radar environment.

WARNING SYSTEMS
Some of the most common stall warning systems are as follows:

 Pre-Stall Buffet. In this case, the warning of the impending stall is provided solely by
aerodynamic buffet. As the aircraft approaches the stall, the airflow across the upper
cambered surface of the wing ceases to flow smoothly, it looses contact with the wing
surface and it becomes turbulent. If the turbulent air then flows across the horizontal
stabiliser, buffet results. In many aircraft, even some as large as the LOCKHEED AC-
130 Spectre, this buffet provides the sole warning of the impending stall.
 Audible Warning. Stall warning is provided by an electronic or mechanical device
that sounds an audible warning as the stall speed is approached. The simplest such
device is an airframe mounted stall warning horn which sounds when the airflow
through it occurs at a specific angle. Slightly more sophisticated audible warning
devices consist of either a pressure sensor or a moveable metal tab that actuates a
switch as the stall is approached. The switch, in turn, activates an audible warning
horn. In some installations, the audible warning is provided by a synthetic voice which
helps to reduce warning ambiguity.
 Stick Shaker. A stick shaker is a mechanical device that shakes the control column to
warn of the onset of stall. A stick pusher may be installed in association with a stick
shaker system in aircraft which are susceptible to the deep stall phenomenon. A deep
stall affects certain aircraft designs, most notably those with a T-tail configuration, and
results in a substantial reduction or, in some cases, complete loss of elevator authority
making normal stall recovery actions ineffective; in many cases, a deep stall might be
unrecoverable. The stick pusher is designed to prevent the pilot from allowing the
aircraft to enter a stall. In all cases, the stick shaker will activate before the stick
pusher.
 Angle of Attack. Stall warning systems often involve inputs from a broad range of
sensors and systems and include a dedicated angle of attack sensor. At a predetermined
angle of attack, calculated for each possible configuration, the angle of attack sensor
triggers the activation of the stick shaker or the audible warning device as appropriate
to the aircraft fitment. An angle of attack indicator may or may not be incorporated into
 the pilot's instrument panel. When installed, the indicator will give a visual indication
of the aircraft proximity to the critical angle of attack.

MACH WARNING
Two independent mach or airspeed warning systems provide a distinct aural warning,
when the maximum airspeed is exceeded. Aural warning (clackers) can be silenced
only by reducing airspeed below critical airspeed (M mo). The indicator displays red
warning bands which shows maximum and minimum airspeeds. Amber bands shows
maximum and minimum manuering airspeeds. Top of the lower amber band displays
minimum manuering speeds.
ALTITUDE WARNING
 An altitude alerter is a device which warns the pilot when he/she is approaching a pre-
set altitude or deviating from that altitude.

 Minimum safe altitude warning (MSAW) is an automated warning system for air
traffic controllers (ATCO). It is a ground-based safety net intended to warn the
controller about increased risk of controlled flight into terrain accidents by generating,
in a timely manner, an alert of aircraft proximity to terrain or obstacles.

 The altitude alerting system shall be capable of:

(1) alerting the flight crew when approaching a preselected altitude; and
(2) alerting the flight crew by at least an aural signal, when deviating from a
preselected altitude.
(c) Not withstanding

The operation is illustrated by the diagram above.

 Some altitude alerters are only fitted with visual warnings while others have an aural
 warning as well as a light.Typically, a momentary chime is heard and/or a light comes
on at a preset point, usually after the “1000 ft to go” point. The light goes out when
the aircraft comes within a specified distance (usually 200 ft - 300 ft) of the pre-
selected altitude.

 If the aircraft deviates by a specified amount (usually 200 ft - 300 ft from the pre-
selected altitude) the light comes on together with an aural tone or a voice message
such as “ALTITUDE”.

WORKING OF INDICATOR
 The MSAW function compares the levels reported by aircraft transponders that have
pressure-altitude reporting capability against defined minimum safe altitudes. When
the level/altitude of an aircraft is detected or predicted to be lower than the applicable
minimum safe altitude, a visual and, in some implementations, audible warning is
generated to the ATCO within whose area of responsibility the aircraft is operating.
 MSAW adds independent alerting logic to the control loop to help prevent controlled
flight into terrain by generating alerts of existing or pending situations related to
aircraft proximity to terrain or obstacles, which require attention/reaction.
 MSAW normally obtains input from the surveillance data processing, the
environment data processing and possibly from the flight data processing systems in
order to generate alerts. Some examples are presented below:

1. Surveillance data, including tracked pressure altitude information, can be used to

predict hazardous situations;
2. Environment data and parameters include:
o Terrain and obstacle data;
o Alerting parameters;
o Additional items (QNH, temperature, etc.).

 To optimise the MSAW function, different types of flights may be specified for
monitoring. These could include civil, military, IFR flights, VFR flights, etc.
 The MSAW function may allow the user to explicitly inhibit alerts from specified
secondary surveillance radar (SSR) code(s) or code blocks.These can be SSR codes
for traffic which is not under ATC or which operates regularly in close proximity to
the ground (e.g. airport helicopters, aircraft taking part in special events).Such settings
may reduce the number of false alarms generated by the MSAW function.

AIR TEMPERATURE

1. SAT

 SAT means Static Air Temperature.

 Static air temperature (sometimes called true air temperature) is the
temperature of undisturbed air.
 In jets, SAT (aka OAT) is determined by applying the appropriate correction
factor to the total air temperature (TAT), or ram air temperature (RAT), probe
data.
 Most large jet aircraft have this function incorporated into the air-data
 computer.
 SAT is the actual air temperature, also referred to as true outside temperature
or ambient temperature.

2. OAT

 OAT is Outside Air Temperature.

 Outside air temperature is essentially the same as SAT. Above 200 knots, a
normal OAT probe can’t give an accurate reading because air friction and
compressibility cause the indicated temperature to rise.
 The addition of compressibility and friction in SAT above 200 knots speed is
called OAT.
 A Rosemount probe (Rosemount Aerospace) or similar device (resembling a
pitot tube) corrects for ram rise and can display static air temperature (actual
OAT) in the cockpit.

3. RAT

 RAT is Ram Air Temperature.

 It is the temperature that the ram air temperature probe senses.
 It is defined as: “The increase in temperature created by the ram compression
on the surface of an aircraft traveling at a high rate of speed through the
atmosphere. The rate of increase is proportional to the square of the speed of
the object.”
 Ram rise occurs to a small degree at all airspeeds, but it only really starts
becoming a factor above 200 knots.
 At typical jet speeds, RAT may be 15 to 30 degrees C higher than the actual
outside air temperature.
 A Rosemount probe (Rosemount Aerospace) or similar device (resembling a
pitot tube) corrects for ram rise and can display static air temperature (actual
OAT) in the cockpit.

4. TAT
  Total air temperature is the SAT (actual OAT) plus the temperature rise
associated with high-speed flight. This temperature increase is called
“ram rise” and is the result of heating of the air due to compression.
 From a practical standpoint, TAT (or RAT) is the temperature the airplane’s
skin feels, while SAT is the free air’s temperature.
 TAT is greater than SAT due to the ram rise in temperature that occurs
because of dynamic heating.
 Ram air temperature rise is proportional to the speed of the aircraft.
 This rise in temperature may be enough to prevent ice from forming.
 Total air temperature (or RAT) is the important number when considering
the formation of ice on the airframe, engine nacelles and inside the fuel tanks,
and can even have an effect on EPR settings.
 In the extremely cold air of the far north, there may be a need to increase the
aircraft’s speed (and/or use a lower altitude) to increase TAT so as to increase
the temperature inside the fuel tanks to prevent the fuel from freezing.
 An actual fuel temperature gauge can be an important safety item when flying
in these harsh conditions.
 TAT (or RAT) is used when deciding to switch on the engine anti-ice.
 SAT (OAT) may be below freezing, but the aircraft is experiencing TAT
(OAT plus ram rise).
 Most manufacturers require engine anti-ice when the TAT (or RAT) falls
below 10 degrees C in visible moisture.
 The approved aircraft flight manual should have a chart showing the
expected ram rise at various Mach numbers. The term RAT is most often
interchangeable with TAT in flight manual charts.
 The aircraft may have any combination of RAT, TAT, SAT or OAT gauges.
Be sure to refer to the proper ones when making anti-ice decisions.

AUTOPILOT

 Most autopilot systems consist of four basic components, plus various switches and
auxiliary units. The four basic components are: sensing elements, computing element,
output elements, and command elements. Many advanced autopilot systems contain a
fifth element: feedback or follow-up. This refers to signals sent as corrections are
being made by the output elements to advise the autopilot of the progress being made.

1. AUTOPILOT SENSING ELEMENTS

 The attitude and directional gyros, the turn coordinator, and an altitude control are the
autopilot sensing elements. These units sense the movements of the aircraft.
 They generate electric signals that are used by the autopilot to automatically take the
required corrective action needed to keep the aircraft flying as intended.
 The sensing gyros can be located in the cockpit mounted instruments. They can also
be remotely mounted.
 Remote gyro sensors drive the servo displays in the cockpit panel, as well as provide
the input signals to the autopilot computer.
 Various input sensors may be located within the same unit or in separate units that
transfer information via digital data bus. Navigation information is also integrated via
 digital data bus connection to avionics computers.

2. COMPUTER AND AMPLIFIER

 The computing element of an autopilot may be analog or digital.
 Its function is to interpret the sensing element data, integrate commands and
navigational input, and send signals to the output elements to move the flight controls
as required to control the aircraft.
 An amplifier is used to strengthen the signal for processing, if needed, and for use by
the output devices, such as servo motors. The amplifier and associated circuitry is the
computer of an analog autopilot system.
 Information is handled in channels corresponding to the axis of control for which the
signals are intended (i.e., pitch channel, roll channel, or yaw channel).
 Digital systems use solid state microprocessor computer technology and typically
only amplify signals sent to the output elements.

Typical analog autopilot system components

3. OUTPUT ELEMENTS
 The output elements of an autopilot system are the servos that cause actuation of the
flight control surfaces.
  They are independent devices for each of the control channels that integrate into the
regular flight control system.
 Autopilot servo designs vary widely depending on the method of actuation of the
flight controls.
 Cable-actuated systems typically utilize electric servo motors or electro-pneumatic
servos. Hydraulic actuated flight control systems use electrohydraulic autopilot
servos. Digital fly-by-wire aircraft utilize the same actuators for carrying out manual
and autopilot maneuvers.
 When the autopilot is engaged, the actuators respond to commands from the autopilot
rather than exclusively from the pilot. Regardless, autopilot servos must allow
unimpeded control surface movement when the autopilot is not operating.

4. COMMAND ELEMENTS
 The command unit, called a flight controller, is the human interface of the autopilot. It
allows the pilot to tell the autopilot what to do.
 Flight controllers vary with the complexity of the autopilot system. By pressing the
desired function buttons, the pilot causes the controller to send instruction signals to
the autopilot computer, enabling it to activate the proper servos to carry out the
command(s).
 Level flight, climbs, descents, turning to a heading, or flying a desired heading are
some of the choices available on most autopilots.
 Many aircraft make use of a multitude of radio navigational aids. These can be
selected to issue commands directly to the autopilot computer.
 In addition to an on/off switch on the autopilot controller, most autopilots have a
disconnect switch located on the control wheel(s). This switch, operated by thumb
pressure, can be used to disengage the autopilot system should a malfunction occur in
the system or any time the pilot wishes to take manual control of the aircraft.

5. FEEDBACK OR FOLLOW-UP ELEMENT

 As an autopilot maneuvers the flight controls to attain a desired flight attitude, it must
reduce control surface correction as the desired attitude is nearly attained so the
controls and aircraft come to rest on course.
 Without doing so, the system would continuously overcorrect.
 Surface deflection would occur until the desired attitude is attained. But movement
would still occur as the surface(s) returned to pre-error position. The attitude sensor
would once again detect an error and begin the correction process all over again.
 Various electric feedback, or follow-up signals, are generated to progressively reduce
the error message in the autopilot so that continuous over correction does not take
place. This is typically done with transducers on the surface actuators or in the
autopilot servo units. Feedback completes a loop as illustrated in Figure.
 Basic function of an analog autopilot system including follow-up or feedback signal

 A rate system receives error signals from a rate gyro that are of a certain polarity and
magnitude that cause the control surfaces to be moved.
 As the control surfaces counteract the error and move to correct it, follow-up signals
of opposite polarity and increasing magnitude counter the error signal until the
aircraft’s correct attitude is restored.
 A displacement follow-up system uses control surface pickups to cancel the error
message when the surface has been moved to the correct position.

LONGITUDINAL AUTOPILOT

 Longitudinal axis runs from nose to tail of aircraft.

 It controls the rolling moment with the help of ailerons.
 This type of autopilot control system is composed of a longitudinal control for
controlling the altitude, forward speed, vertical speed and pitch attitude and a lateral
control for controlling the direction of the airplane along with a bank angle control.

LATERAL AUTOPILOT

 Lateral axis runs from one wingtip to other.

 It controls the pitching moment of aircraft.
 This type of autopilot control system is composed of a laterall control for controlling
the pitch up, pitch down, climb and glide motions.