5.

Metaphysics:
ofIdeas
Theory
The
reasonable defence that the
not be our
"Then willt knowledge by his
nature strives towards
reallover of not contenttoablde bythis. multitude
real being,
andis
onlyin opinion;forwards heaways
w exist
ofthings, which blunted, and never cases sfrom
and he is never
nature of whatreally in
goes, grasps the
thet love, untilhe
the SOul to which itbelongs
part of partakin to real
88chcase, bythat that is the
athing, and
to grasp Such into this and mingling with the
reel
being; then going and truth, he would know, and
he would beget mind nourished and sohe would cease
truly live, and be never before. "
from his travail, but
-Plato in The Republic

as Theoryof Ideas" or
Lhe philosophy of Plato is best known that, according to Plato,
Theory of Forms". This is due to the fact is a transcendent
over and above the world of sense perceptions, there real
world of Ideas or Forms. The transcendent world was more
than our everyday world, and, as a matter of fact, as moonlight is a
derivative of the sunlight, the world of sense objects was a derivative
of the transcendent world. Therefore, whereas the transcendent world
was ontologically real, the sensuous world lacked the originality and
was dependent upon the transcendent for its reality. The reality of
the sensuousobjects was directly proportionate to their being faithful
copies of the transcendent objects. As Plato believed in the ontologa
reality of the transcendent world, which consists of Ideas, Forms o
Concepts, the philosophical theory of Plato is also known as "Conceptual
Realism". Plato's theory of two worlds is an
apparent atenp
 Metaphvsics : The Theory of ldeas 45
reconcile the"all-change" theory of
theory of Parmenides. It is a commonHeraclitus and the "no-change"
of things are
constantly changed, observation that certain aspects
while
constant. For example, a man begins hissomelife
other aspects remain
as an infant and then
passes into
yet in spite ofchildhood,adolescence, adulthood and senescence etc.
immense changes he continues to be the same person.
Plato, however,reconciled
by introducing a novel idea,the concepts of change' and 'permanence'
namely, the dichotomy of existence. He
postulated that the world existed
rational or transcendent. Accordingat totwohim,levels;
the
the sensuous and
the world could be reduced to various objects of
certain concepts or forms and al
objects were more or less perfect expressions
these forms in their complete perfection of these forms. Now
own. The properties of the two world formed areal world of their
diverse, whereas the sensuous world is were, according to Plato,
etc., the transcendent world is transient, mortal, temporal
immutable, immortal and non-temporal.
BASIC TENETS OF THEORY OF IDEAS
Plato's theory of ideas is based on the reflections on the world
of sense-observation. In the practical world of
there is nothing which is absolute and immutable: sense-observation,
'all is flux as
Heraclitus has put it. Everything changes, decays and is lost in oblivion.
Nowhere in the sensuous world do we discover any permanently
unchanging elements. The order of the practical world is temporal,
that is, everything is under the sway of time. Under the influence of
growth and decay, the things exhibit many varying, contradictory
properties. Afood which may nourish today may kill tomorrow because
of the decay which has taken place in the intervening period. A
square shape may appear rectangular from a particular angle. A
straight stick looks bent under water. From these reflections on the
nature of practical reality, Plato concluded that there could be no
definite knowledge based on sense observations. Accordingly, the
sensuous world or the world of appearance cannot be the object of
knowledge. From this fact it follows that there must be another
world, other than and independent of the sensuous world which is
the object of knowledge. This world must be transcendent, because
everything non-transcendent or this worldly is appearance and subject
to change and decay. It must be, for the same reason, non-sensuous
or ideal. Lastly, it must be an intelligible world which can be known
it be
by reason, for if it is beyond both reason and sense, how will
known? And if unknowable, we cannot even conceive of it.
 Plato
46
Qualifled Realism
ideas is based on realism. It is by norealism
means
Plato's theory of type of idealism. However,
the
phenomenalism or Berkeleycan because of this, he is
difficult to understand, and
of Plato is a little idealist. Plato acknowledged the existence
generally considered to be an reality. He believed
denied to it permanent
of sense world but he are expression of concepts or forms.
that allobjects of the world
we learn to apprehend rationally by perceiving
These concepts or forms, the various world objects. Thus we form
certain uniformlities in conceptualisation is rational. Plato
concepts of things. The process of
believed that the form or concept is not in the things but
further concepts or forms exist
exists outside of them. According to him the exhibit them and since
over and above the particular things which
of the concept or form,
the particular thingsare replicas or copiesparticular
the concept is ultimately real while the thing has only
temporary existence and reality. Because whatever is object of sense
perception, is in Space and Time, it cannot be permanent and invariable,
and because the existence of pure concepts or forms is logically
indisputable, these cannot be said to exist either in the things or in
the mind of nan. Therefore, they must form an independent world
of their own which is transcendent, beyond space and timne.
Validity of the World of ldeas
Plato tries to establish the validity and rationality of the existence
of transcendent world in another way also. In the practical world, if
we wish to kaow the meaning of the concepts like 'beauty',
'sweet', etc., we can only point to certain particular objectsjustice',
illustrate these concepts. We may say, this flower is beautiful',which
this
maiden is a beauty' 'sugar is sweet', the beauty and
princess' etc. In these examples, we do not learn sweetness of the
what beauty by
itself and in itself is, we learn about things
concept of beauty. From thesc considerations it iswhich exemplify the
evident that nowhere
in the actual world of
per se. Therefore these
space and time, we come across the
concepts concepts
must be in a transcendent world.
sum up, since Beauty, Justice, Good and To
like are
not found per se infound only exemplified
in the actual world and are
existence, the
time.
these must exist in aworld Spatio-temporal
which is beyond space and
Arguments in Favour of Theory of ldeas
Plato has advanced various
arguments to establish his
 Plato
46
Qualified Realism
bascd on realism. It is by no mcans
Plato's thecory of ideas is of idealism. However, the rcalism
type
phenomenalism or Berkeleycanunderstand, he is
difficult to and because of this,
of Plato is a little idcalist. Plato acknowledged the existence
generally considered to be an
denied to it permanent reality. He belicved
of sense world but he are expression of concepts or forms.
that all objects of the world
or forms, we learn to apprehend rationally by perceiving
These conocepts world objects. Thus we form
certain uniformlities in the variousconceptualisation is rational. Plato
cepts of things. The process of
further believed that the form or concept is not in the forms things but
exists outside of them, According to him the concepts or exist
since
over and above the particular things which exhibit them and
the particular things are replicas or copies of the concept or form,
the concept is ultimately real while the particular thing has only
temporaryexistence and reality. Because whatever is object of sense
perception, is in Space and Time, it cannot be permanent and invariable,
and because the existence of pure concepts or forms is logically
indisputable, these cannot be said to exist either in the things or in
the mind of man. Therefore, they must form an independent world
of their own which is transcendent, beyond space and time.
Validity of the World of ldeas
Plato tries to establish the validity and rationality of the
of transcendent world in another way also. In existence
the practical world, i
we wish to kaow the meaning of the
´sweet', etc., we can only point to certainconcepts like beauty', justice,
illustrate these concepts. We may say, this particular objects which
maiden is abeauty 'sugar is sweet', 'the flower beautiful', this
is
princess' etc. In these examples, we dobeauty and sweetness of the
not learn what beauty by
itself and in itself is, we learn
concept of beauty. From these about things which exemplify the
in the actual world of
space considerations
and time, we
it is evident that nowhere
per se. Therefore these come across the concepts
concepts
sum up, since Beauty, Justice, must be in a
in the actual world Good and like are transcendent world. To
and are not foundper se infound only exempified
existence, these must exist in a the
time. world which is beyond Spatio-temporal
space and
Arguments in Favour of Theory of ldeas
Plato has advanced
various
 Metaphysics: The Theoryof ldeas 47
Tdeas. Aristotle considered five of
follows: these as the chief. They are as
1. The argument from Science,
2, The
argument of one over many.
3. The argument from the knowledge of things that are no
more.
4. The argument from relations.
5. The argument implying the
fallacy of the third man.
1. The argument from Science.
this argument, knowledge and scienceAccording to the reasoning of
must be definite and real.
They must enjoy unambiguous ontological status. But in
world we find nothing which is definite, permanent andour practical
All worldly things are subject to immutable.
change and therefore variable in
character. Therefore, these cannot be objects of knowledge. The
knowledge therefore, can only be transcendent. The objects of
knowledge can only be those which are immutable and absolute and
these must be transcendent. Plato believed that concepts or forms
are immutable and absolute objects Ideas' or Forms. For example,
mathematics is a science, but in the practical applications of
mathematics, the number, the straightest line and point etc. only
exemplify them. We do not have an object which corresponds to the
idea of a point or straight line. The ideal definition of a straight line
is that of the short distance between two points and that of the point
that it has position but no magnitude. Now we cannot possibly imagine
anything in space and time which has position and no magnitude. of the
This consideration alone leads us to believe that the objects
world are but imperfect copies of an ideal and perfect be form. Therefore,
not to found in our
the objects of mathematical knowledge are is apprehensible
day-to-day world but in the transcendent world which
alone.
not by any sense but by reason
The agument of One over Many. The reasoning of this argument
2.
the various particulars in the practical world have certain
is that due to which they are considered of one
similarities with each other
subsumed under a single concept or idea. For example,
Class and stones etc. in this world. All particular
there are men, animals, plants, there is a quality of
'manliness.
in allof them,
men are called so because manliness must exist somewhere. It cannot
Now this quality or idea of exists in a particular it must also exist
because if it of the
CSt in particulars and: then there will be many conceptssingular
Inanother particular illogical, therefore the concept must be
Same type. But this is
 Plato
48

and it cannot exist in our spatio-temporal world.

3, The argument from the knowiedge of things that are no mo
The reasoning of this argument is that while particular
born and die, the form or the concept of which they are things are
illustrations ever remains: For example, men keep being copies or
born and
dving but the idea or concept of manliness' 1s permanent and presenee
through all changes. It is neither born nor dies; but is immortal
4. The argument from relation. Al things classified
under
concept are not uniformly equal; but are more or less different froma
cach other; yet they are known by the same name, This is
they follow more or less perfectly the ideal form or concept.because
Only
the concept is wholly perfect.
5. The angument
implying the fallacy of the third man. The
reasoning of this argument is that a set of particulars is called bya
single name because all the particulars of the set have
some common
features. But, however, none of these has these features
For example, Ram, Shyam, Sohan are all men, perfectly.
the characteristic of manbood is found, that is,because in allof them
all
rationality and animality. But no particular man is have the traits of
perfectly rational
and animal. However, the idea of a
perfect rational
indispensable; otherwise we cannot recognize a rational creatureAsis
there can be no copy without an animal.
original,
rational creature without a universal rationalthere can be no particular
ideas or concepts must exist outside of creature. Therefore,
particulars,
The Characteristics of ldeas
Plato has tried to explain in detail the
Following are, according to him, the principal characteristics of ideas'.
1. Ideas' are features of ideas':
Substances. In philosophy, substance
substratum which persists through changes; is is defined as
immutable and eternal. The Ideas', as we haveunaffected by them; is
these qualities. In fact, nothing seen earlier, poSsess
other than Ideas have these
Therefore, ideas are, according to Plato, qualities.
2. Ideas are substances.
but are general andgeneraland universal. The Ideas' are not
a white cloth, a universal. For example, there is a white
white
particular
not found anywhere. elephant, but the idea of whiteness' etc.chalk,
These
3. Idea' is not a are universal and general.
are
'and
concept or form is somethingmaterial object. In as much as the
time it is not to be universal and unbounded by idea',
discovered anywhere in the space
objects.
 Metaphysics : The Theory of ldeas 49
A Aclass has a
similar and dissimilar tosingle Idea. The objects of this
form a class which is
each other. Aset or group of world are
different from the objects of other similar objects
the objects of this world fall into class. Thus
there is a class of white, numerous classes. For
white objects, another ofblack, blue objects. Thus there is aexample,
black, still another of blue and class of
HOwever, white objects are similar by
all
virtue of being white. Thus
so on.
though there are white roses,
the idea of whiteness is elephants, clothes, chalks, paper etc.
single. Similarly, other classes also have
single ideas. Thus there are as many
are classes of objects. "ideas', or 'concepts' as there
5. The ideas are
indestructible. In as much as the Ideas' are
immaterial and non-composite, these cannot be destroyed. They are
subiect to no deterioration and no decay. They are
immutable substances. They are pure and simple. eternal and
6. Ideas' are non-sensuOus and more
perfect than any particular.
Since ideas are not objects of sense-perception but are apprehensible
by reason alone, the ideas' are non-sensuous. Further, since all
particulars are no more than copies of the universal 'ideas' they must
be superior to particulars in all respects.
Hierarchy of ldeas
Plato is a pluralist. Hebelieved in the independent existence of
allconcepts. But all concepts do not enjoy equal role and importance
inthe transcendent world. As a matter of fact, there is a hierarchical
order of ideas in the transcendent world. The ideas representing
material objects form the lowest rung of the hierarchy, followed by
ideas which stand for qualities and so on. The idea of good comes
at the top. The idea of good is the highest idea, all other ideas are
ideas
under it. The world of ideas is a system in which various the
are subservient to
pertorm their respective roles. But al roles
role played by "Good".
The Problem of One and Many
one and many is a constant problem in metaphysics.
The problem of of Plato, pluralism
While one finds monistic ideas in the philosophy
His solution of the relation of one and
has also been found in it. is
pointed out in our discussion of epistemology,
any, as has been monist others
Therefore, while some call him a metaphysical
full of contradiction. the ideas are many,
find pluralism in his philosophy.onAsthe other hand, essentialy all the
pluralism is maintained. But,
 Plato

50 monistic conception of
means the the
reality.are
ideas Inthe which
onc, Platonictheory ofideas, jdeas are one as well as many,.
Itisonc becauseit is the highest pointin a series. It is many bccaUNe
cach idea is one in many, unity
dlimale
many objects.In fact
itinrepresents
diversity. Apart from other ideas it is one, in the context of other

ideas it is many.
Good
The ldea of the
reality, according to Plato,
Plato, is the Good.
idca. It is substratum of th Thus the
The ultimate the
good is the highest
idea of place as Beinginthe philosophy of
It occupies
Substance
the
inthe
same
philosophy of Spinoza and Brahaman in the Parphimloenisodphyes,
of Advaita Vedanta. The idea of good has been described in Pllato's
Republic. Theidea of Good is the highest
dialogue The
knowledge,
highest value and the supreme existence. It is absolutely free, self-
existent and perfect. It is the truth, the Good and the beautiful.
highest in metaphysics, epistemology and aiology. It is th
ummun bonum of human life. It is the aim of all desires, activities
and excellences. It is the object of the entire universe. All human
beings, animals, birds and even Gods aim at its attainment. It is onty
the extent of participation in the idea of good which makes anything
useful or good. Metaphysically, the idea of good is the cause of the
Universe. It is the cause of the existence of all the things. It is at the
root of the existence of Nature. The physical world is only its
appearance. Though it is the source of all the existence, it has neither
existence nor being, it is beyond both. It is the idea of good which
gives knowledge to the knower. Thus it is the source of both knowBedge
and truth. Just as light is due to sun but it is not sun
the world of existence is due to the idea of good, itself, similarly,
idea of good itself. Science and truth are like but it is not the
good but not good in
themselves. The idea of good is not only the cause of
also the cause of existence. It not only
gives
knowledge Dul
the power to exist. According to the power to know bu
realisimum Taylor the
where the distinction between Esse and idea of good is ens
and da-sein is essentia, the seIt is
eliminated. The ultimate good is indescribable.
beyond language. It is beyond senses
ithas been described and Therefore,
called ideal never to through
worldlystatements.
experiences.
It has been
be contradictory
Plato has elaboratelyattained.
be realised on this earth. explained the process by which good canof
cave in his This has been discussed in the parable
this book indialogue The
chapter 4. Republic. Thisdo parable
Philosophers
has been quotedin
not agree whether good
is
 Metaphysics: The Theoryof ldeas 51
an idea or not, In The Republic it has been called an
good has not been described as the idea. In Phaedo
Benett. the theory of the idea of good ultimate
is within
reality. According to
philosophy. Taylor is, however, against calling it anthe limit of Socratic
of the relationship between the ideas and the idea. The question
to idea of God in Plato's philosophy. idea of good leads us

THE IDEA OF GOD

Nature of God
R3xc57:| NI
God, according to Plato is demiurge. He has used this idea both
in singular and plural. But generally he has used the wordGod for
ceveral Gods. Besides several Gods, Plato has also pointed out to the
creator and the Controller of the world. He is perfect in every sense.
He is transcendental. He is the best. He hasmaximum beauty and
excellence. He is unlimited, free and selfexistent. He is not a
combination or mixture, but simple and pure. He is eternal and
immutable. He is homogenous. He has purity, self-sufficiency,
completeness and eternity which are not found in the physical world.
He uses his power and also distributes it. He is naturally graceful.
He has good will towards all. Hisperfection is moral and has therefore
no place for injustice and evil. He is the highest limit of virtues.
of all the'
There can be no higher virtues than Him, He is the abode
virtues. 3522
Comparison with Christian God
similarity between Plato's idea of God and the
There is some Christianity, God is the
According to
Idea of God in Christianity. the view maintained by Plato.
highest mora! perfection. Similar is
to Plato and Christ God has love for man and helps
both according struggle. He is not only the demiurge
moral
e numan beings in their the father. In spite of this similarity between
Dutalso the shepherd and fundamental difference between the ideas
ue two Views, there is a on by Christ. God, According
of God maintained by Platoand later is omnipotent
personality. He
to Christ, has human qualities and human
The
evil in some sense.
cause of He
and all creator. Thus he is alsothe personality andno will.
has no not responsible
God of Plato, on the other hand, Therefore, he is
nor a ruler.
FLDer omnipotent this world.
thought trom di#a.

Plato

God or Creator
cAnnot be compared with the
The (God of Platopantheist,
Spinoza. Spinoza was a
to Plato, God is the
while Plato
Plato was atheist.
creator of the world but not the
other hand, God is the
Accordingto Spinoza, on the According
subworsActaldneocrdeing ot

or transcendent? to world. isitselt

immanent
transcendent. According to others, God is both neo-Platonists
transcendent. Relatively, God is motion and soul.
transcendent. God creates this world. The world is bie im
Absmanent
olu tely and
he is
was nothing before the creation.
who has created athing out of the
God can
matter
be compared creat
to ianon. There
which he has architect
Thus the source of the world, the matter by which not created,
created is eternal. The prototypes of the world are the
world has been
are as much eternal as the creator God. Plato has
tried ideas
to reconciwhilceh
betweenthe apparent contradiction in the characteristics of the
and the created. According to Plato these creator
really contradictory. God is perfect and yet characteristics
He is also the
are not
He creates the world not because of some need but creator.
because nf
abundance. Being perfect He wants that everything shouBd be ike
Him. This shows His love for the creation. This love however is
different from lower eros which is due to appetite. God's love is
Platonic love, pure and unselfish. Only he can transcend his self and
maintain proper
relationship with others. The creation of the physical
world does not detract from the perfection of God as the world is
the emanation of God's perfection.
God and Evil
As to the question of evil in the world Plato
while God is the creator of the world. He is maintained that
He isresponsible for the creation of the not the creator of E.
and not completely. He is world only to a certain imu
of the responsible for ideal patterns and potenta
world. receptacles. He is
As he does not the creator of good and not evil in the
world according to the make the matter of creation hethere creates a
in the world. The nature of the matter. Therefore, is ei!
creator, however, is not responsible for this evil.
Notes and References
1.
Trans.