1. Introduction. ...........................................................................................................

2
1.1. Overview, History and concept of GIS ......................................................................................................... 3

1.2. Scope and application areas of GIS ........................................................................................................... 13

1.3. Purpose and benefits of GIS ...................................................................................................................... 15

1.4. Functional components of GIS ................................................................................................................... 17

1.5. Importance of GPS and remote sensing data in GIS .................................................................................. 19

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1. INTRODUCTION.
Geography is the study of Earth’s features and patterns of their variations in spatial location and time.
Many questions of agricultural production are geographic in nature as the production depends on the
environment and prevailing socio economic conditions, both of which vary spatially and in time.
Examples are questions related to natural resources management, precision agriculture,
agroecological classification for land use planning, regional trends and patterns in technology
adaptation, agricultural productivity and income, non-pont source pollution from agricultural lands,
etc. Answering these questions requires access to large volumes of multidimensional geographical
(spatial) information of weather, soils, topography, water resources, socio economic status, etc.
Further, answers to even apparently simple questions require that the data from several sources be
integrated in a consistent form. Geographical Information Systems or GIS enable representation and
integration of such spatial information.

The traditional method of presenting geographical information in two dimensions is in the form of
maps. Maps are graphic representations of the earth's surface on a plane paper. They shape the way
we visualize, assess and analyze spatial information. A map consists of points, lines and area elements
that are positioned with reference to a common coordinate system (usually latitude and longitude).
They are drawn to specified scales and projection. Map scales can vary and depend on the purpose
for which the maps are created. Projection is a mathematical transformation used to represent the
real 3-dimensional spherical surface of the earth in 2-dimensions on a plane sheet of paper. The map
legend links the non-spatial attributes (name, symbols, colours, and thematic data) to the spatial data.
The map itself serves to store and present data to the user. Such, analogue maps (on paper) are
cumbersome to produce and use, particularly when there are a large number of them to be used for
analysis. Computer based GIS facilitates both creation of maps and using them for various complex
analyses. It allows working with geographic data in a digital format to aid decision making in resources
management

GIS is a generic term implying the use of computers to create and display digital maps. The attribute
data which describe the various features presented in maps may relate to physical, chemical,
biological, environmental, social, economic or other earth surface properties. GIS allows mapping,
modelling, querying, analyzing and displaying large quantities of such diverse data, all held together
within a single database. Its power and appeal stem from its ability to integrate quantities of
information about the environment and the wide repertoire of tools it provides to explore the diverse
data. The history of development of GIS parallels the history of developments in digital computers and
database management systems on one hand and those in cartography and automation of map
production on the other. The development of GIS has also relied upon innovations made in several
other disciplines – geography, photogrammetry, remote sensing, civil engineering, statistics, etc.

A GIS produces maps and reads maps. Its major advantage is that it permits identifying spatial
relationships between specific different map features. It can create maps in different scales,
projections and colours. But it is not just a map making tool. It is primarily an analytical tool that
provides new ways of looking at, linking and analyzing data by projecting tabular data into maps and

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integrating data from different, diverse sources. This it does by allowing creation of a set of maps,
each with a different theme (soils, rainfall, temperature, relief, water sources, etc.).

From its early beginnings, GIS has been an integrating technology both from the point of view of its
development as well as its use. This is because, once geographic information of any kind is translated
into the digital form in a GIS, it becomes easy to copy, edit, analyze, manipulate and transmit it. This
allows vital linkages to be made between apparently unrelated activities based on a common
geographic location. This has led to fundamental changes in the way resource management decisions
are made in a variety of situations - forest management, marketing management, utility management,
transportation, as well as in agricultural, environmental and regional planning and management. Some
potential agricultural applications where GIS can lead to better management decisions are: precision
farming, land use planning, watershed management, pest and disease management, irrigation
management, resources inventory and mapping, crop area assessment and yield forecasting,
biodiversity assessment, genetic resources management, etc.

1.1. OVERVIEW, HISTORY AND CONCEPT OF GIS

1.1.1. Overview
A geographic information system consists of the tools and services necessary to allow one to collect,
organize, manipulate, interpret, and display geographic information. A GIS is more than just the
hardware and software familiar to most people; it extends to the staff who operate the system, the
databases, the physical facilities, and the organizational commitment necessary to make it all work. A
GIS can be defined by how it is used (e.g., a land information system, a natural resource management
information system), by what it contains (spatially distinct features, activities, or events defined as
points, lines, polygons, or raster grid cells), by its capabilities (a powerful set of tools for collecting,
storing, retrieving, transforming, and displaying spatial data), or by its role in an organization (a map
production system, a spatial analysis system, a system for assisting in making decisions regarding
basic geographic questionswhere is it? what is it? why is it there?).
GIS can also be defined as geographic information science (GIScience). GIScience involves the
identification and study of issues that are related to GIS use, that affect its implementation, and that
arise from its application (Goodchild 1992). In short, GIScience not only encourages users to
understand the benefits of GIS technology in providing a powerful set of analysis tools but also
encourages users to view the technology as part of a broader discipline that promotes geographic
thinking and problem-solving strategies as being useful to society. The development of GIScience is
an outgrowth of the fact that GIS technology is available to more users today than ever before and
that spatial categorization and analysis is applicable to many issues and problems of society.
Regardless of how a GIS is perceived or used, it is the integration of the various tools and services that
leads to a successful GIS. Although other software programs perform GIS-like tasks (e.g., database
management, graphics, or computer-assisted drafting [CAD] Software), a GIs is unique in its ability to
allow users to create, maintain, and analyze geographic or spatial data. The term spatial data implies
that data exist - which not only describe landscape features (e.g., condition, composition, structure of
forests) but also reference the location where the features can be found. A GIs allows one to
manipulate spatial data and to analyze quickly a large volume of spatial data. A GIS stores spatial data
in a digital database files, often referred to as themes, maps, covers, tables, layers, or GIS databases.

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The terminology for referring to a GIS database varies, depending on the GIs software program being
used. In most GIs software programs, similar landscape features are maintained in a single GIS
database. For instance, one may have a soils GIS database, which contains the soil characteristics of a
landscape, or a wildlife GIS database, which contains the nest locations of a single species of animal
or a group of species of animals. GIs allows the integration and simultaneous examination of multiple
GIS databases through a process described as overlay analysis. Overlay analysis represents the essence
of what many consider to be a primary role of GIS in natural resource management: the ability to
combine two or more GIS databases to assist in making decisions. GIS is related to a number of other
fields and disciplines, including computer-assisted drafting (CAD), computer cartography, database
management, and remote sensing. In fact, GIs contains certain aspects of each of these fields and,
thus, is closely related to each of them. However, the differences between GIS and these other allied
fields is notable. For example, most CAD software programs have rudimentary links to a database
management system, whereas GIs software programs generally have strong links to a database
management system. The field of computer cartography emphasizes map production, but although
the databases used may be similar to those used in GIS, computer cartography generally puts less
emphasis on the nongraphic attributes of spatial landscape features than does GIS.
Database management software programs have the ability to store and manage the location and
attribute data of landscape features but generally lack the display capabilities of GIS, CAD, and
computer cartography.
Finally, remote sensing-related software programs generally focus on the
Ability to manipulate and manage raster GIS data; Scope and application areas of GIS; Purpose and
benefits of GIS Functional components of GIS; Importance of GPS and remote sensing data in GIS
Digital Mapping; Concept Map Concept: map elements, map layers, map scales and representation
Map projection: coordinates system and projection system; Spatial Data Modeling and Database
Design; Introduction to geographic phenomena and data modeling; Spatial relationship and topology
Scale and resolution; Vector, raster and digital terrain model Spatial database design with the concept
of geo-database Capturing the Real World ; Different Methods of data capture ; Map projection and
spatial reference ; Data Preparation, Conversion and Integration ; Quality aspects of Spatial Data
GPS (Global Positioning System) Remote Sensing Spatial Analysis and Visualization Spatial Analysis
Overlay Buffering; Map outputs and its basic elements ; Introduction to Spatial Data Infrastructure
SDI Concepts and its current trend; The concept of metadata and clearing house Critical factors around
SDIs ; Open GIS; Introduction of Open Concept in GIS ; Open Source Software for Spatial Data Analysis
Web Based GIS System System Analysis and Design with GIS derived from satellites; scanners, or other
photographic devices, and they have a limited capability to handle the vector GIs databases more
common to natural resource management organizations.

1.1.2. History
GIS is unique in its ability to process, map, and analyze spatial data.
During in 1400: In Egypt, Spatial data have been collected and maintained with records of property
boundary surveys for taxation purposes. Although the term geographic information system was first

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used in the 1960s, overlay analysis has been demonstrated through manual techniques for over 200
years.
During the American Revolution, French cartographer Louis-Alexandre Berthier overlaid multiple
maps to analyze troop movements (Wolf and Ghilani 2002).
During In 1854: Dr. John Snow compared the locations of cholera deaths with well locations in London
to determine if well water was related to cholera infections.
During In 1954: The first written description of how to combine multiple maps precisely through a
manual overlay process appeared in a 1954 text titled Town and Country Planning Textbook, by
Jacqueline Tyrwhitt (Steinitz et al. 1976).
During the 1960s: Organizations in the United States (including the U.S. Geological Survey and the U.S.
Department of Agriculture's Natural Resource Conservation Service) began to create GIs databases of
topography and land cover (Longley et al. 2001).
Students and researchers began to write computer programs and design hardware devices (such as
the precursor to today's digitizing table) that would allow one to trace the outlines of landscape
features on hardcopy thematic maps and transfer them into a digital format. These early programs
were designed to handle specific tasks and were often limited in scope.
As programmers began to combine these algorithms to create more versatile and powerful software
programs, the era of computer mapping applications began.
Early examples of mapping programs include IMGRID, CAM, and SYMAP (Clarke 2001). In conjunction
with the development of software programs, other organizations began to assemble GIs databases.
The first examples were the GIS databases created by the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) called
the "World Data Bank." Spatial features in the GIs database included coastlines, major rivers, and
political borders from around the world.
During in 1964: Ian McHarg described how to use a series of transparent overlays to determine the
suitability of areas for development in New York's Staten Island. By using a transparent overlay for
each layer of interest (soils, forests, parks, etc.) and blacking-out the areas on each overlay that
presented development impediments, the layers could be overlaid and the final suitable areas
defined.
McHarg (1969) later published examples of his overlay techniques in his seminal book, Design with
Nature.
In the early stages of the development of GIs technology, two facts were evident: there were few
geographic or spatial databases to work with, and the technology to store and manipulate the data
was rudimentary (by today's standards).
During 1970: The U.S. Census Bureau designed a methodology for linking census information to
locations in preparation for the 1970 U.S. census. The 1970 U.S. census was the first census that was
mailed, and the only piece of information that was returned to reference the location of the
respondent was the address. The Census Bureau, however, was faced with the challenge of matching
the addresses on the responses to a map, so that the spatial distributions of the responses could be
analyzed. To meet this challenge, the Census Bureau developed a system known as Dual Independent
Map Encoding (DIME) which allowed them to create digital records of all streets and to associate

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addresses to street locations. The DIME system allowed the Census Bureau to understand which
streets were connected to which other streets, as well as what landscape features were adjacent to
each street.
The description or characterization of the spatial relationships between landscape features in a GIS
database is referred to as topology. Topology is an important concept with respect to GIS applications.
Topology allows one to organize and analyze objects according to their location and to their proximity
with other objects. The topological characteristics of data structures allow a determination, for
example, of which roads in a forest are connected to which other roads and which timber stands are
next to which other timber stands.
During 1988: The DIME system was the predecessor of Topologically Integrated Geographic Encoding
and Referencing System (TIGER) files, which were introduced by the Census Bureau in 1988 and are
still used today to distribute spatially referenced census and boundary data. The availability of TIGER
files was instrumental in promoting GIs use in the United States.
Another important contribution to spatial data availability in the United States was made by the U.S.
Geological Survey (USGS). The USGS began digitizing features from its 1: 100,000 scale hardcopy maps
in the early 1980s. Spatial data from these maps were made available as digital line graphs (DLGs),
which, like the TIGER and DIME systems, were also stored in a file format that allowed for the topology
of objects to be characterized. The file format was restructured in the early 1990s, and features from
finer-resolution 1:24,000 scale maps were later made available for small portions of the country by
the USGS. To manage and analyze spatial data for their jurisdictions,
During 1960’s: Canadian and U.S. organizations began to develop software programs in the 1960s.
One of the most ambitious of these systems was the Canada Geographic Information System (CGIS),
which was created under the guidance of Roger Tomlinson in 1964. A chance meeting on a plane flight
between Tomlinson and Canada's Minister of Agriculture resulted in Tomlinson overseeing the
creation of a national effort to inventory Canada's land resources and to develop a software program
to quantify existing and potential land uses. The CGIS is recognized as being the first national-level
GIS; thus, Tomlinson continues to receive recognition as a GIs pioneer for his efforts.
Other early landmark efforts in the evolution of GIs include the development of the Land Use and
Natural Resource Inventory System (LUNR) in New York in 1967 and the development of the
Minnesota Land Management System in 1969. The success of these early systems and the need for
further refinements were recognized by a group of faculty and students at Harvard University's
Laboratory for Computer Graphics and Spatial Analysis. The group set forth to create a versatile GIS
that would map and track locations as the DIME system does, while possessing the land measurement
strengths of the CGIS. From this effort, the Odyssey GIs (containing modules named after parts of
Homer's epic work The Odyssey) emerged in 1977 and pioneered the use of a data structure known
as the archode or vector data structure. It is important to note that the specifics of the Odyssey vector
structure were first published by Peucker and Chrisman (1975), and the structure continues to
influence the design of modern GIs software programs.
During 1980: Jack Dangermond, a Harvard Laboratory student, founded the Environmental Systems
Research Institute (ESRI) in 1969, and ArcView and ArcInfo, the most widely used desktop and
workstation GIs software programs, are based on the Odyssey vector data structure. ArcInfo, in fact,

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was introduced in 1981, marking the first major commercial venture into the development of GIs
technology. The 1980s also witnessed the proliferation of microcomputers, today's version of the
personal computer (PC).
During 1986: In response, software manufacturers began to produce GIs software programs that could
operate on the microcomputer. In 1986, MapInfo Corporation was formed and subsequently
developed the world's first major desktop vector GIs software program for the PC. Soon afterward,
raster GIs software programs, such as IDRISI, began to appear. Some software programs, such as the
raster GIs program GRASS, use a software architecture developed for workstation computer
platforms. Other significant developments during the late 1970s and early 1980s were the emergence
of GISrelated conferences and publications.
The first Auto- Carto Conference was held in 1974 and helped establish the GIs research agenda. One
of the first compilations of available mapping programs was published by the International
Geographical Union in 1974. Basic Readings in Geographic Information Systems was published in 1984,
containing a collection of papers discussing GIs technology.
In 1986, the first textbook written specifically for GIs, Principles of Geographic Information Systems
for Land Resources Assessment, was published (Burrough 1986). Finally, the first GIs-related academic
journal, the International Journal of Geographic Information Science, was published in 1987. The
history of GIs continues to evolve, with GIs users providing a number of challenges. GIs users, for
example, have the ability to influence the development of GIs software program features. As new and
challenging natural resource management issues arise, users identify and propose processes and
functions that will make the task of analyzing potential natural resource decisions more efficient and
accurate. In addition, GIs users increasingly expect support and training related to specific GIs software
programs, and they expect that the software will be perfected by the time of its release to the general
public. Further, because GIs databases are shared data among organizations, the need to standardize
data formats is evident, as data transformations can require an extensive commitment of time and
resources.
Society is fortunate today, on one hand, to have a variety of GIs software programs from which to
choose. On the other hand, evaluating which of these programs best suits the needs of a natural
resource management. Organization is problematic. Since organizations (natural resource
management as well as academic) may use different GIs software programs, a decision was made to
develop as a general reference for describing the typical types of GIs applications faced by 'field-level
professionals associated with natural resource management organizations.

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Fig: GIS theme overlay

1.1.3. Concept of GIS

How GIS Works - Visualizing Your Data

GIS databases are often large and complex collections of geographic features, and their corresponding
attribute data. For example, the table below contains county-level population statistics for the United
States. This particular database contains over 3,000 records (one for each county) and numerous
columns of attributes, which include population, income, crime, etc.

Like, standard database management systems, a GIS provides tools that enable a user to query,
manipulate and summarize large quantities of data. Additionally, a GIS enables you to link the tabular
attribute data with the mapped features so that you can visualize patterns in the data across space.
The graphic below shows all counties that have more than 1000 farms. The mapping capabilities of a
GIS make it easier to see patterns in the data.

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It is not just the visualization of a database that makes a GIS so powerful but its ability to combine
multiple thematic layers for the purpose of answering complex questions. Examples of thematic layers
are roads, rivers or buildings to name a few. The ability to combine these layers in a GIS allows us to
answer questions like: "Where are all of the rivers that are within 25 meters of a road?". We will show
an example of this in the next section.

How GIS Works - Combining Data

One of the greatest advantages of using GIS is its capacity to combine layers of data into a single map.
The following graphics illustrate how multiple individual layers (or themes) can be combined for the
purpose of performing complex queries.

Theme 1: Surface water intake

These points represent surface water supply locations throughout Pennsylvania.

2. <="">
3. Theme 2: Rivers

These lines represent Pennsylvania rivers.

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 4. Theme 3: Counties

Pennsylvania county boundaries are represented by green polygons.

<="">

Theme 4:Surface water intakes, Rivers and County boundaries

The surface water intakes and rivers have been overlaid with the county boundaries to produce a
single digital map that can be printed or used as input for both attribute and spatial queries. Layering
data like this in a GIS allows users to analyze features in one theme, relative to features in another
theme.

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The following example provides an illustration of a geographic query that involves multiple thematic
layers.

How GIS Works: Query as GIS analysis tool

A query is the same thing as a search. When you do a query, you are asking a database to find all of
the data that is related to the terms, phrases, or features that you choose. This is similar to how an
internet search engine finds specific web pages when you type in the phrase "mountain bikes", or a
computerized library system finds specific books, magazines, or authors related to "bluejays".

With GIS, you query the system by asking a question, or series of questions, to the database system.
It then displays the data that relates to your query as a new theme. Below is an example of what a
query looks like. In this case, the question that the user wants to answer is;

Which Surface Water Intakes are within .5 miles of a river?

As we saw earlier, we have the Surface Water Supplies, Rivers, and County Boundaries all combined
into one digital map using GIS software.

The next step is using the Query tool to choose the specific data features you want. This process asks
the database specifically what to look for. In this case we are asking the GIS to select the Surface Water
Intake features that are within a .5 mile distance of a river.

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The GIS then displays the data which matches your query, or your search criteria. In this case, the
features highlighted in yellow are all the points that are within .5 miles of a river.

Check the query by zooming into the view, and measure any of the surface water intake points that
are highlighted in yellow. One of the points measured .33 miles of a river, so the query has been
successful.

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4.1. SCOPE AND APPLICATION AREAS OF GIS
One of the primary services provided by a GIS project is the georeferencing of various data layers for
mapping projection, involving the use of satellite image data for GIS mapping including:

 Mineral Mapping
 Pipeline Corridor Mapping
 Defense Mapping
 Airport Mapping
 Land Cover Classification
 Urban Development
 Pre and post 2D/3D seismic surveys
 Environmental Impact Studies (EIS)
 Coastal erosion studies
 Cadastre Mapping
 Disaster Analysis

Mineral Mapping
Satellite Imagery and aerial photography have proven to be important tools in support of mineral
exploration projects. They can be used in a variety of ways. Firstly they provide geologists and field
crews the location of tracks, roads, fences and inhabited areas. This is important for mapping out
potential access corridors for exploration areas and considering the environmental impact of large
project. These images are also useful for mapping outcrops and regolith systematics and vegetation
cover across exploration blocks and over regional areas.

Pipeline Corridor Mapping

Improve Safety and Security for Pipeline and Transmission Surveys: Satellite imagery and GIS data
have significant potential to reduce a number of safety and security issues for pipeline corridor
planning as well as supply managers with solutions through spatial representation of data for land,
lease management, exploration, production, transmissions, environmental, financial and facilities
management. This information is required to make decisions that will significantly impact the
operator's ability to provide the services demanded by their customers.

Defense Mapping
Defense and Security

Satellite imagery and GIS maximizes security programs which can enable local governments to better
assess and understand how to develop programs to save lives, protect property and enhance the
future economic stability of their communities. The current threats to a country range from incidents
of terrorism and information attacks on critical infrastructure to the potential use of weapons of mass
destruction and the spread of infectious diseases. Each one of these threats could cause massive
casualties and disruption to a country.

Airport Mapping
Airport Mapping Database

Satellite Imaging Corporation (SIC) provides 3D airport mapping using high resolution stereo satellite
imagery to support airport pre-planning and design, airport layout plans (ALPs), navigational mapping,
airport security and aviation safety operations.

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3D Digital Surface Models (DSM's) and Digital Terrain Models (DTM's) can be created to support
airport and aviation operations to provide details and data for the construction of airport runways,
airport terminals, airport layout design, airspace analysis, obstruction surveys, facility mapping,
taxiways, aprons/parking areas, 3D flight simulation for pilot training, aircraft operations, and GIS
database development.

Land Cover Classification

Satellite Imagery and GIS for Land Cover and Change Detection

Satellite imagery and GIS maps for land cover, land use and its changes is a key to many diverse
applications such as environment, forestry, hydrology, agriculture and geology. Natural Resource
Management, Planning and Monitoring programs depend on accurate information about the land
cover in a region. Methods for monitoring vegetation change range from intensive field sampling with
plot inventories to extensive analysis of remotely sensed data which has proven to be more cost
effective for large regions, small site assessment and analysis.

Evaluation of the static attributes of land cover (types, amount, and arrangement) and the dynamic
attributes (types and rates of change) on satellite image data may allow the types of change to be
regionalized and the approximate sources of change to be identified or inferred.

Urban Development
Satellite imagery for urban and land development can be used to gather strategic planning information
pertaining to a district or an entire city. High resolution satellite imagery and LiDAR incorporated into
a GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and CAD (Computer Aided Drafting) has gained popularity
among Planners, Developers and Engineers for large scale mapping of any region for most urban and
land development applications.

Information from satellite images when combined with GIS mapping is used for analysis in evaluating
construction costs as well as environmental impact of alternative routes for utility and transport
corridors; land cover and land use classification; identifying population groups at risk where human
intervention is most needed to limit and prevent hazards during development stages.

Pre and post 2D/3D seismic surveys

No matter how remote, Satellite Imaging Corporation (SIC) can retrieve satellite images from the most
difficult-to-photograph areas of the world. For heavily forested areas, we provide medium-to-high
resolution "Bare Earth" DEMs. This provides weather independency, allowing us to map large areas of
terrain in limited timeframes, independent of the weather and solar illumination conditions. We are
also familiar with specialized retrieval methods used for satellite imagery in remote areas, highly
developed areas and areas of persistent heavy cloud cover such as the tropics.

Environmental Impact Studies (EIS)

Satellite Imaging Corporation (SIC) provides satellite image data at different spatial, spectral, and
temporal resolutions by using the appropriate combination of bands to bring out the geographical and
manmade features that are most pertinent to your project for detecting and monitoring
environmental changes.

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Satellite imagery and GIS have greatly expanded opportunities for data integration, analysis, modeling,
and map production for environmental monitoring and assessment. As populations grow, as countries
boost their economies, as landscapes change, governments have increasingly relied on up-to-date
satellite imagery and other geospatial data for applications such as environmental planning, land
registration, disaster response, public health, agricultural biodiversity conservation and forestry

Coastal erosion studies

Many coastal managers are changing the way they manage coastal problems. Instead of only
undertaking corrective measures, officials are moving toward prevention. Using potential models with
satellite imaging technology and land cover data through GIS, managers can create scenarios for
future development, as well as permitting and land use scenarios, to estimate the impacts on sensitive
water bodies.

Satellite images can provide coastal management researchers and scientists with data for assessment
and analysis of water temperature, salinity, phytoplankton, hydrology, shoreline changes,
bathymetry, soil moisture and potential threats to our coasts.

Assessments and predictive capabilities through satellite imagery incorporated with GIS are needed
to predict onset of events that may significantly affect human health, critical wetlands and
ecosystems, and economic development.

Cadastre Mapping
Satellite images which forms the base for the generation of action plan maps, if used in the background
of intelligent cadastral vector data, can improve the details of the thematic maps as well as action plan
maps. It also helps in the monitoring of land cover changes that can be identified by detailed change
detection processing procedures and implemented in the GIS cadastre mapping project.

Disaster Analysis
Satellite imagery and GIS maps can give emergency and disaster response officials a wealth of
information for assessment, analysis and monitoring of natural disasters such as hurricanes, tornadoes
and cyclone damage from small to large regions around the globe.

Estimates of the particular land cover classes that may be inundated by a natural disaster can enable
operators and planners to better assess their region's risk and vulnerability. This information will allow
for prioritizing target mitigation and preparedness activities for their area.

The use of multispectral satellite imagery is therefore critical for the separation of constituent
materials within an image and for the interpretation of images of damage for pre or post-disaster
assessment. View Before and After example satellite images here.

4.2. PURPOSE AND BENEFITS OF GIS

4.2.1. Purpose of GIS

GIS can be used to:

 Explain events

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  Planning Strategies
 Integrate Information
 Solve complicated problems
 Predict outcomes
 Create “smart” maps
 Visualize scenarios
 Present powerful ideas

Who Uses GIS?

 Police and Law Enforcement Agencies

 Planning Strategies
 Foresters
 Industry
 Environmental Engineers
 Real Estate Professionals
 Telecommunications Professionals
 Emergency Response Organizations
 Local and Federal Government
 Health
 Transportation
 Geographers
 Market Developers

Top Five Benefits of GIS

GIS benefits organizations of all sizes and in almost every industry. There is a growing interest in and
awareness of the economic and strategic value of GIS, in part because of more standards-based
technology and greater awareness of the benefits demonstrated by GIS users. The number of GIS
enterprise solutions and IT strategies that include GIS are growing rapidly.

The benefits of GIS generally fall into five basic categories:

1. Cost savings resulting from greater efficiency. These are associated either with carrying out the
mission (i.e., labor savings from automating or improving a workflow) or improvements in the mission
itself. A good case for both of these is Sears, which implemented GIS in its logistics operations and
has seen dramatic improvements. Sears considerably reduced the time it takes for dispatchers to
create routes for their home delivery trucks (by about 75%). It also benefited enormously in reducing
the costs of carrying out the mission (i.e., 12%-15% less drive time by optimizing routes). Sears also
improved customer service, reduced the number of return visits to the same site, and scheduled
appointments more efficiently.
2. Better decision making. This typically has to do with making better decisions about location. Common
examples include real estate site selection, route/corridor selection, zoning, planning, conservation,
natural resource extraction, etc. People are beginning to realize that making the correct decision about
a location is strategic to the success of an organization.

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3. Improved communication. GIS-based maps and visualizations greatly assist in understanding
situations and story telling. They are a new language that improves communication between different
teams, departments, disciplines, professional fields, organizations, and the public.
4. Better geographic information recordkeeping. Many organizations have a primary responsibility of
maintaining authoritative records about the status and change of geography (geographic accounting).
Cultural geography examples are zoning, population census, land ownership, and administrative
boundaries. Physical geography examples include forest inventories, biological inventories,
environmental measurements, water flows, and a whole host of geographic accountings. GIS provides
a strong framework for managing these types of systems with full transaction support and reporting
tools. These systems are conceptually similar to other information systems in that they deal with data
management and transactions, as well as standardized reporting (e.g., maps) of changing information.
However, they are fundamentally different because of the unique data models and hundreds of
specialized tools used in supporting GIS applications and workflows.
5. Managing geographically. In government and many large corporations, GIS is becoming essential to
understand what is going on. Senior administrators and executives at the highest levels of government
use GIS information products to communicate. These products provide a visual framework for
conceptualizing, understanding, and prescribing action. Examples include briefings about various
geographic patterns and relationships including land use, crime, the environment, and
defense/security situations. GIS is increasingly being implemented as enterprise information systems.
This goes far beyond simply spatially enabling business tables in a DBMS. Geography is emerging as a
new way to organize and manage organizations. Just like enterprise-wide financial systems
transformed the way organizations were managed in the ‘60s, ‘70s, and ‘80s, GIS is transforming the
way that organizations manage their assets, serve their customers/citizens, make decisions, and
communicate. Examples in the private sector include most utilities, forestry and oil companies, and
most commercial/retail businesses. Their assets and resources are now being maintained as an
enterprise information system to support day-to-day work management tasks and provide a broader
context for assets and resource management.

4.3. FUNCTIONAL COMPONENTS OF GIS

GIS in the wider sense consists of software,
data, people, and an organisation in which
it is used. We should note that organisation
factors will define the context and rules for
the capture, processing and sharing of
geoinformation, as well as the role which
GIS plays in the organisation as a whole.

GIS consists of several functional

components- components which support
key GIS functions. These are data capture
and preparation, data storage, data
analysis, and presentation of spatial data.
The system should not be called a
geographic information system if any one of these components is missing.

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The Components of GIS
A Geographic Information System is a system of computer software, hardware and data, and the
personnel that make it possible to enter, manipulate, analyze, and present information that is tied to
a location on the earth’s surface.

The components of a GIS fall into three main categories.

 Computer Hardware and Software

 Spatial Data from the “Real World”
 Trained Personnel

 Hardware/Software: Hardware is the computer on which a

GIS operates. The software runs on a wide range of hardware
types, from centralized computer servers to desktop
computers used in stand-alone or networked configurations.
GIS software provides functions and tools needed to input and
store geographic information. It also provides query tools,
performs analysis, and displays geographic information in the
form of maps or reports. All GIS software packages rely on an underlying database management
system (DBMS) for storage and management of the geographic and attribute data. The GIS
communicates with the DBMS to perform queries specified by the user.

 Data: Data is one of the most important, and often most expensive,
components of a GIS. Geographic data, which is comprised of geographic
features and their corresponding attribute information, is entered into a
GIS using a technique called digitizing. This process involves digitally
encoding geographic features, such as buildings, roads or county
boundaries. Digitizing is done by tracing the location, path or boundary of
geographic features either on a computer screen using a scanned map in
the background, or a paper map that is attached to a digitizing tablet. The
digitizing process can be very tedious and time consuming, especially when
capturing large datasets such as soil polygons, streams or topographic contours. Fortunately, much
of the data GIS users need has been created by government agencies or commercial operations,
and is available for free or for purchase from the data provider or from a spatial data
clearinghouse.

 People: The real power of a GIS comes from the people who use them.
Over the past decade, computers have become much easier for people
to use and more affordable for companies, schools and organizations to
purchase. Given this fact, the number of GIS users has increased rapidly,
and no longer includes only GIS specialists. Today GIS is being used by
people, in many different fields, as a tool that enables them to perform
their jobs more effectively. Police use GIS to solve crimes, Emergency
911 operators use GIS to send emergency personnel to a person in distress, biologists use GIS to
protect plant and animal species, teachers use GIS to teach lessons in geography, history or

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 engineering. The list of GIS users in the 21st century goes on and on. Whatever the application,
the user is the key to a successful GIS.

4.4. IMPORTANCE OF GPS AND REMOTE SENSING DATA IN GIS

The widespread use of computers has led to the development of new technologies, collectively known
as geographical information sciences (GISci), for mapping and monitoring features on the surface of
the Earth. Foremost for exploration and fieldwork among these technologies are: geographical
information systems (GIS), which can take digital datasets and produce maps showing features of
interest in matter of seconds; the global positioning system (GPS), which allows positions to be
determined to ±10 m anywhere on the Earth’s surface; and methods of observing features from a
distance, such as photography or infra-red scanning, known as remote sensing. These GISci techniques
complement the surveys and sampling that are at the heart of scientific exploration (Figure

1-1): they greatly enhance the types of fieldwork that can be carried out, reduce the amount of time
needed for many tasks and improve the quality of results. Figure 1-1 Geographical information
sciences and expedition fieldwork. A fundamental objective of most exploration is to observe and
record information about the part of the world being studied, for instance by field surveys,
photography, or questionnaires. The development of ever-cheaper and more powerful computers,
GIS software and GPS kit, along with low-cost satellite pictures of the Earth, has greatly improved the
potential of expeditionary fieldwork to record, analyse and present data that may help us to improve
conditions on this beleaguered planet. Remote sensing provides us with a means of recording the
distribution of features on the surface of the Earth and changes in those features over time: it is often
the only source of new data about a region that will be available to you, prior to you going there to
collect field data. Your GPS will tell you where you are in your study region and allows you to input
your sample locations into a GIS. A GIS is a means of combining existing data and new data from
fieldwork or the interpretation of remotely sensed images. GIS-generated maps greatly reduce the
original amounts of data and can be designed to focus on specific themes of interest to your research.

Remote sensing GPS Surveys & sampling

This manual aims to provide expeditions with details of fieldwork techniques, from ‘traditional’
compass-based surveying, through to the use of GIS to show GPS-located sites on satellite images
displayed on a laptop screen in, say, Amazonia or the Himalayas. There are many ways in which
geographical information sciences can help with fieldwork projects, these are just a few of the possible
applications:

 Logistics: planning routes and navigation

 Research: mapping vegetation, wildlife, urbanisation, soils and geological features
 Monitoring: data logging of fire extents, forest loss, river channel changes
 Conservation applications: assessing biodiversity, park zonation, impact assessment
 Technology transfer: training local technical staff, donating hardware and shareware
 Education: maps for displays, involving schoolchildren with fieldwork.

4.4.1. GPS

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A Global Positioning System (GPS) is a tool used to collect data for a GIS. Many people get the terms
GIS and GPS confused with each other.

GPS stands for Global Positioning System, which is a system of satellites, ground stations, and
receivers that allow you to find your exact location on Earth. By collecting location points you can
begin compile datasets that can be used to map whatever data you are collecting.

The U.S. Department of Defense was one of the first to use GPS technology as a navigation system.
Not long after, biologist's, foresters, and transportation departments to name a few, caught on to this
revolutionary way of precisley collecting data.

How GPS's and GIS relate to one another: The way a GPS works is, by
connecting to three or more 24 GPS satellites that orbit 11,000 nautical
miles above the earth, and are monitored by ground stations located
throughout the world.

GPS systems generate geographic reference points in the form of latitude, longitude, and elevation
coordinates. Once the data is collected it can be put into a GIS and displayed digitally as it is in the real
world.

The technology has advanced greatly over the past ten years. Today boats and many car
manufacturer's have GPS units mounted so they can track where they are at all times. The
increased availability and affordability of handheld GPS units, makes it useful for the average
person to use for activities such as backpacking, hunting, and skiing, to name a few.

Maps We're all familiar with maps. They help us locate things, help us get from place to place, and
give us a sense of what places are like. They help us see and learn about where we're at, where we've
been, where we'd like to go. Maps also provide us with glimpses into the past, of the places and
journeys that people before us experienced.

They are a form of visual communication, a way of showing, displaying,

or representing the spatial relationships between different places and
their features. Like other forms of communication, maps vary greatly in
their purpose and style, from a rough diagram you may draw on a napkin
for a friend to get to your house, or to a complex city map.

How Maps and GIS Relate to Each Other: Maps alone,

regardless of whether they are finished paper versions or in digital format are not necessarily a GIS.
Though they all have geographic data, which is a big part of GIS, they may not have the geographic
information behind them.

This is simply a map of Pennsylvania's county boundaries. There is not any other information other
than what you see.

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When a map is put into a GIS and linked to other data sources, you not only get the map of
Pennsylvania's County Boundaries but you get the information or attributes of the counties. Clearfiled
County is selected in the example to the left.

When the data is in a GIS, information about the Clearfiled such as the population, number of
households, the number of males and females is easy to access.

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Software Package Buying GIS software and loading it on a computer does not mean that you
instantly have a GIS. GIS's also require data, people, and manipulation. The trained user is able to
make a GIS powerful by asking questions, linking to complex databases, and layering data in a
intelligent manner. As mentioned before, complex questions and problems can be answered when
using a GIS.

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