UNIT 1

Principles of measurements

The purpose of measurement is either to understand an operation, to monitor and to control an

operation, to collect data for future analysis and to validate an engineering design. Hence measurements
are indispensable for identifying the parameters of a system, providing a discovery, formulating a
statistical law and controlling a process. Measurements are all the more necessary in industries where
many things are processed and produced for the consumption of the people and hence for the welfare of
the society.

Methods of Measurement and Classification of process control instruments:

The methods of measurement can be broadly classified as

1. Direct comparison method and

2. Indirect comparison method

Basic Classification of Measuring Instruments

Instruments are basically classified as

1. Absolute instruments and

2. Secondary instruments

Performance characteristics:

➢ The knowledge of the performance characteristics of instrument is essential for the proper choice
of the instrument for given application.

➢ The performance characteristics can be broadly classified into two categories namely:

1. Static characteristics

2. Dynamic characteristics

➢ Static characteristics are a set of performance criteria that give a meaningful description of the
quality of measurement while the measured quantities are either constant or vary slowly.

➢ On the other hand, dynamic characteristics describe the quality of measurement when themeasured
quantities vary rapidly with time.

➢ The dynamic characteristics are generally describedby linear differential equations.

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 ➢ When static characteristics are also taken into account thesedifferential equations become non-
linear and unmanageable to deal with. Hence, theconventional approach is to treat the two aspects
of the problem separately.

Static Characteristics:

➢ By static characteristics we mean attributes associated with static measurements ofmeasurement

of quantities which are constant or vary very slowly with time.

➢ Static characteristicsof instruments can broadly be divided into two categories called 'desirable'
and 'undesirable'.

Accuracy:

Accuracy determines the closeness of an instrument reading to the true value of the measured.

Sensitivity

Sensitivity is defined as the absolute ratio of the increment of the output signal to that of the input- signal.
Stated mathematically,

Increment of output signal

Sensitivity =
Increment of input signal

Reproducibility:

It is defined as the degree of closeness with which a particular reading of an instrument,taken at

different times, repeats itself. Reproducibility, therefore, determines the precisionofan instrument. The
related undesirable characteristic is 'drift'.

Repeatability:

Repeatability is defined as the variation of scale reading and is randomin nature. This is affected
by internal noise and drift.

Drift:

Drift denotes the change in the indicated reading of an instrument over time when thevalue of the
measurand remains constant. If there is no drift,the reproducibility is 100%.

Dead Time and Dead Zone:

Dead time is defined as the time required by a measurement system to begin to respondto change
in the measurand. Dead time, in fact, is the time before the instrument begins torespond after the measured
quantity has been changed.

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 Dead zone is defined as the largest change of input quantity for which there is no outputofthe
instrument. The factors which contribute to dead zone are friction, backlash and hysteresisin the
instrument.

Dynamic Characteristics:

➢ The dynamic characteristics of an instrument refer to performance of the instrumentwhen it is

subjected to time varying input.

➢ The performance criteria based upon the dynamicrelation constitute the dynamic characteristics.

The dynamic characteristics of a measurementsystem are:

1. Speed of response

2. Measuring lag

3. Fidelity and

4. Dynamic error.

Measurements of Temperature

➢ Temperature of the substance represents its thermal state i.e. hotness or coldness. Temperature is
a measure of heat and acts as the driving force or potential for heat transfer.

➢ Any change in temperature of a body causes change in its physical, chemical and electrical
properties. These effects can be employed for temperature measurement purposes.

Classification of temperature sensors:

1. Mechanical (or non-electrical) sensors:

(a) Solid expansion thermometers (bimetal type).

(b) Liquid-in-glass thermometers

(c) Filled system thermometers:

2. Electrical sensors:

(a) Thermo-resistive type thermometers:(Based on change in electrical resistance)

(b) Thermo-electric type thermometers:(Based on generation ofthermo e.m.f.)Thermocouples:

(c) Solid-state temperature sensors.

(d) Quartz thermometers.

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3. Radiation sensors (Pyrometers):

(a) Total radiation pyrometer.

(b) Selective radiation or optical pyrometer.

Solid Expansion Thermometers (Bimetallic Thermometer):

Solid expansion thermometers utilize the changes in thermal expansion of solids withtemperature,
for measuring temperature around the solid.

1. Principle:

Solids, particularly metals change their volume with temperature and this coefficient ofchange is
not the same for all metals. Hence, any change in temperature around the bimetalstrip can be measured in
terms of the free end deflection."

2. Construction:

(a) Bimetallic strip(b) Spiral bimetal element thermometer (c) Helix bimetal element
thermometer.

(a) Bimetallic strip:

➢ For utilizing thermal expansion of solids for temperature measurement, bimetal stripshown
in Fig. 4 is used.

➢ It consists of two metal strips welded together, each strip madefrom a metal having
different coefficients of thermal expansion.

➢ In simple straight form,bimetal strip is fixed at one end in the form of cantilever beam,
while its other end is free tomove.

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3. Working:

➢ Since two metals used in bimetal strip have different coefficient of thermalexpansion,the
metal having highcoefficient expands more in length than the metal having relatively low
coefficient of thermalexpansion.

➢ Since these two metals are bonded in cantilever form, as temperature around thestrip
increases, the strip bends towards the metal having low thermal expansion coefficient.

➢ Thus, free end of the strip gets deflectedand this free end deflectionis nearly proportional
tothe change in temperature.

➢ This free end deflectionis: (i) directly proportional to the squareof the length of the strip,
and (ii) inversely proportional to the thickness of the metal.

➢ Thisfree end deflection is coupled with the pointer that moves on the scale calibrated
intemperature.

(c) Helix bimetal element thermometer.

4. Working:

➢ When the temperature of a medium is to be measured, the bimetallic thermometer is introduced

into the medium for a length ‘L’.

➢ The bimetallic helix senses the temperature and expands resulting in a deflection at its free
end.

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 ➢ This deflection at the free end of the bimetallic helix rotates the shaft connected to it. When
the shaft rotates, the pointer attached to the shaft moves to a new position on the temperature
calibrated dial indicating the measured temperature.

5. Working substance:The metals used in bimetallic strip are - low expansion metal -Invar (64% Fe
+ 36% Ni), high expansion metal - Brass, Nickel, Ni-Mo alloy.

6. Temperature range :Range is restricted by creeping (stressing) effect at hightemperature to - 75 to

540°C.

➢ Free end deflection of the bimetal strip increases with increase in its length. Hence, to
getconsiderably large deflection for small temperature changes, long bimetal strip~ are
arrangedin spiral of helix forms described below.

➢ Knowing the coefficient of expansion of two metals,their thickness, the desired scale length
and range, the total length of spiral is computed.

7. Calibration :

➢ Bimetallic thermometer is calibrated by inserting in fixed temperature bath and itsresponse

is compared with that of a standard thermometer immersed in the same bath.

➢ Calibrations are marked for different bath temperatures and then scale is prepared.

8. Advantages:

(a) Lowest as compared to thermal and electrical sensors.

(b) Rugged construction, less subjected to breakage.

(c) Reasonably accurate.

(d) Easy installation and little maintenance.

(e) Considerably wide temperature range.

(f) Nearly linear response.

(g) Can be equipped with recorder.

(h) Helical coil can be designed to fit into' a stem more easily than the spiral.

9. Limitations:

(a) High accuracy cannot be obtained.

(b) It is to be mounted at the point of temperature measurement.

(c) Remote indication of temperature cannot be obtained.

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 (d) Rough handling changes calibration.

10. Applications:Bimetal thermometer can be used where local temperature indication isrequired and
point of measurement is easily accessible.

Thermoelectric Temperature Measurement(Temperature measurement using thermocouple):

The word thermocouple is a combination of thermofor heat requirement and coupledenoting two
junctions.

Thermocouple consists of wires of two dissimilar metals soldered or welded atthe ends toform two
junctions. The junction at higher temperature is called hot or measuring junction,while the junction at
lower temperature is called cold or reference junction.

1. Principle :-

(a) See beck effect :

➢ In 1821, See beckdiscovered that when there is temperaturedifference between two

junctions of the thermocouple, electromotive force (e.m.f.) isdeveloped between the
junctions.

➢ This e.m.f. causes electric current to flow through the ‘l' thermocouple circuit. This is
called as thermoelectric effect by which thermal energy isconverted into electrical
energy.

➢ The e.m.f. developed is called as thermo-e.m.f., while theresulting current is called as

thermo-current. See beck effect is the combined effect. This thermo-e.m.f developed
is proportional to temperature differencebetween junctions.

e.m. f ., e (Th − Tc )

➢ If cold junction is maintained at fixed temperature (preferably O°C) then e.m.f.

developedcan be taken as a measureofthe hot junction temperature.

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(b) Peltier effect:

➢ Battery is connected in the thermocouple circuit as shown in Fig.7. Battery current and
thermocurrentboth flow through the circuit across the junctions.

➢ Peltier effect is defined as the change in heat content when 1 coulomb of charge
crossesthe junction.

➢ If the battery current and thermal current both flow in same direction across the
junction[as shown in Fig.7 (a)], then heat is liberated at hot junction and absorbed at
coldjunction.

➢ On the other hand if battery current and thermal current both flow in opposite
directionsacross the junction [as shown in Fig.7 (b)], then heat is absorbed at hot
junction andliberated at cold junction. This is the situation when thermocouple is used
in practice.

➢ Peltier effect develops Peltier e.m.f at the junctions whose magnitude and
directiondepend upon the junction temperature and the metals used in thermocouple.

(c) Thomson effect:

➢ It gives heat content of a single conductor of unit cross-sectionwhen unit quantity of

electricity flows through it along temperature gradient of 1 K.

➢ For a positive wire of the thermocouple carrying electrical current and

havingtemperature gradient along its length, heat is liberated at any point on it where
current flowsin the direction of heat and vice-versa.

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 ➢ On the other hand,for a negative wire of the thermocouple carrying electrical current
andhaving temperature gradient along its length, heat is absorbed when current flows
in thedirection of heat and vice-versa.

➢ Thomson effect generates Thomson e.m.f. in a single homogeneous thermocouple

wirehaving temperature difference between its ends.

➢ It is necessary that each section of thermocouple wire in a given circuit is

homogeneous,which has uniform composition and physical properties along its length.

➢ With suchhomogeneous wires, the circuit e.m.f. depends only upon the metals
employed and thetemperature of their junction, while it is independent of length and
diameter of wires.

➢ Thus, thermo e.m.f predicted in See beck effect is the sum of Peltier e.m.fat
junctionsand two Thomson e.m.f.salong the wire. Note that Peltier and Thomson
effects cannot existseparately for a homogeneous conductor.

2. Construction:
➢ The main parts of a thermocouple arrangement used to measure temperature are as follows:

➢ The thermocouple hot junction JH which will be introduced into the place where
temperature is to be measured.

➢ The thermocouple cold junction JC which is maintained at a constant reference temperature.

➢ A voltage measuring instrument (which is usually a milli voltmeter) is connected to the

free ends of the thermocouple

3. Working:

➢ The thermocouple hot junction JH which will be introduced into the place where temperature
is to be measured.
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 ➢ The reference temperature is to be controlled at a constant temperature of 00C.

➢ Since the two junctions are at different temperatures, a voltage is setup at the free ends and
since the free ends are connected to a milli voltmeter, the emf setup will establish a flow of
current which can be directly measured using the milli voltmeter.

➢ Since the reference junction is kept at 00C, the emf measured is a function of the temperature
of the hot measuring junction. The milli voltmeter is calibrated suitably so that its reading
becomes an indication of the temperature.

4. Advantages:

(a) Rugged, inexpensive construction.

(b) Simpler to use and take the readings.

(c) Indicating instrument is compact like millivoltmeter as compared to Wheatstone

bridge for RTD.

(d) Wide temperature range from -270° to 2800°C.

(e) The output is in electrical form that is suitable for indicating and controlling devices.

(f) Good accuracy and reproducibility.

(g) Electrical output can be transmitted over long distance, hence sensing and
indicatingelements can be far away from each other.

(h) No danger of contaminating the process by filling fluid.

5. Limitations:

(a) Not suitable for spans less than 33°C.

(b) The reference junction must be maintained at constant temperature and compensation

arrangements should be made.

(c) Non-linear temperature e.m.f. relationship.

(d) Temperature gradients must be avoided.

(e) Not as simple as direct reading thermometer.

(f) They cannot be used bare in conducting fluid.

Optical Pyrometer (Disappearing Filament Type):

1. Principle:
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 ➢ The spectral radiant intensity of the radiated energy from heated body at a givenwavelength
is proportional to the temperature of the body.

➢ Hence, temperature of the bodycan be measured in terms of spectral radiant intensity at a

certain wavelength.

➢ Opticalpyrometers are narrow band or two-colour radiation pyrometers which operate in

the visiblespectrum around 0.65 micron point.

2. Construction and Working:

There are two designs of optical pyrometer - Manual and automatic.

(i) Manual type:

➢ In manual pyrometer a human eye acts as the detector for comparing a source of
knownradiant energy generated within the instrument to the incoming unknown source.

➢ Fig. 9 shows schematic diagram of optical pyrometer which is similar to the telescope
havingobjective at one end and the eyepiece at the other end.

➢ A red filter is placed between the eyeand the two sources of energy, that cuts out the shorter
wavelengths and passes radiationshaving wavelength about 0.65 micron. Thus, filter serves
as a dual purpose:

(i) Permits an easier colour match. I

(ii) Permits an extension of temperature range beyond the point where eye could
nolonger tolerate the amount of energy if viewed directly. .

➢ The filament lamp acts as the standard source which is placed exactly at the focus
ofobjective; so that image of the hot target is focused on the plane of filament.

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 ➢ Due to thistarget image and filament lamp appears superimposed on one another when
viewed througheyepiece.

➢ A 2 volt battery alongwith milliammeter and rheostat is connected. in series withthe lamp.

➢ The intensity of filament lamp can be varied by varying current through it with thehelp of
rheostat.

➢ A slight modification in this principle maintains the standard source constantand varies the
amount of interposing absorbing material in the absorbing path.

➢ Manual instrument is so shaped to be held in the hand and upto the eye so that it may
besighted on the target.

➢ An adjustable focus permits the operator to focus an image of thesource or target whose
temperature is to be determined.

➢ The temperature range is limited to 760°C on low end because there is

insufficientemissions of visible light below 760° C for an accurate comparison.

Advantages of Manual Units:

1. Self-contained unit with its own power supply for operating the current.

2. Can be mounted in place or hand-held by an operator as he takes a sighting.

3. Reasonable accuracy if sighted into near black body furnace.

Limitations of Manual Units:

1. Requires operator to adjust temperature d.ialmanually.

2. Not suitable to alarm and control functions.

3. Use of human eye restricts accuracy somewhat because eye responds to both colourand
brightness rather than directly to energy.

3. Working:

➢ In optical pyrometer we are interested in collecting the radiations of particularwavelength

from the hot target.

➢ The telescope is focusedon the hot target so that image ofthe target is formed exactly at the
filament lamp.

➢ When object is viewed through eyepiece,filament is viewed against the background of

target image.

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 ➢ In optical pyrometer, thebrightness or intensity of hot target is matched with the intensity
of filament lamp. Thematching is done as follows:

➢ If temperature of the target is higher than that of the filament, the filament appears
darkagainst the bright background as shown in Fig. 10 (a).

➢ On the other hand, when targettemperature is lower than that of the filament, then filament
appears bright against the darkbackground as shown in Fig.10(c).

➢ When temperatures of target and filament match, thentheir intensities become equal and
then filament disappears against the target background asshown in Fig. 10 (b).

➢ For getting target temperature, the intensity of filament lamp is so adjusted that thefilament
disappears against the background, hence the name disappearing filament typepyrometer.

➢ The filament current required to get this condition can be used for calibrating
theinstrument. Usually the milliammeter or rheostat is calibrated for target temperature.

Temperature range: 760° to 3500°C.

(ii) Automatic type:

➢ Automatic units use electrical radiation detector instead of human eye and consequently
itis not limited to visible wavelength of spectrum.

➢ It can reach far into the IR or near ultravioletusing either a narrow band, or two-colour or
a wide band selection in accordance with theoptical system and the detector used.

➢ It operates essentially by comparing the amount ofradiation emitted by target with that
emitted by an internally controlled reference source.

➢ Thesystem usually consists of two components, the optical head and the electronic
amplifier.

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 ➢ Insome models, optical head contains a temperature-controlled black-body source,
apreamplified and an optical chopper.

➢ The chopper driven by a synchronous motor alternatelyexposes the detector to incoming

and cavity radiations.

➢ The automatic pyrometers are usedfor measuring temperatures in jet engine rotor blades,
furnaces, hot metal filaments,refractory metals, metal processing, textile, plastic, ceramic
industries, thin film polymers,etc.

4. Calibration:

➢ Optical pyrometers are calibrated by focusing them on a standard tungsten strip lampwhose
temperature is known.

➢ Calibration can also be done by comparing the performancewith standard pyrometer when
both are focused at a standard tungsten lamp which acts as asource of known temperature.

5. Advantages:

(i) Light weight and portable construction.

(ii) Good accuracy.

6. Limitations:

(i) Cannot be used for measuring temperature of clean burning goods because they donot
radiate energy in visible range.

(ii) The working depends upon correct matching of the intensities of target and lamp,hence
personnel error is involved in the measurement.

7. Applications:

Optical pyrometers are frequently used for calibration of radiationpyrometers.

8. Advantages of Pyrometers overother Temperature Sensors:

a. Pyrometers do not require the physical contact with the target whose temperature isto be
measured.

b. Pyrometers can be used to measure temperatures of either stationary or movingobjects.

c. Theoretically there is no upper limit on the temperature that pyrometers can measure.
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 d. Since pyrometers do not make any actual physical contact with the target, they can be used
to measure the temperatures of targets having contaminating environment.

e. Pyrometers can measure temperature of targets which are difficult to access for other
sensors.

Measurements of Pressure:

➢ The measurement of pressure and vacuum is highly essential in continuous processingindustries.

➢ In many operations it is necessary to measure and control pressure of liquid or gasto avoid any
hazards. Hence pressure measurement is one of the most important of all processmeasurements.

➢ In this chapter, we shall study the principle, construction, working andcharacteristics of pressure
sensors.

➢ Pressure is defined as the amount of force applied per unit surface area on which it actsnormally.

Classification of pressure measuring instruments:

➢ Different techniques are used for measuring pressures in different ranges, i.e. high
(above1000atm), low (of the order of 1 mm of Hg and below) and moderate pressure.

➢ The staticpressuresare measured directly, while dynamic pressures are converted into displacement
byusing an elastic element, which is further converted into electrical signal using
anyelectrochemical transducer.

➢ Pressure sensors are broadly classified into gravitational (e.g.manometers) and elastic type.

➢ The pressure transducers used in different pressure ranges aregivenbelow.

(A)Moderate Pressure Sensors:

(1) Manometers

(2) Elastic element gauges such as Bourdon tube, bellows, diaphragmand capsule.

The output of elastic elements is in the form of displacement which is then converted
intoelectricalsignals using transduction elements that give rise to different pressure transducersasfollows:

(3) Piezo electric pressure transducer

(4) Digital pressure transducer

(5) Measurement of fluctuating pressures

(B)High-pressure sensors:

Resistive transducer (wire type).

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(C) Low-pressure (vacuum) sensors:

(i) Manometers. (Used up to pressure of about 0.1 torr)

(ii) Elastic element gauges. (Used up to pressure of about 0.1 torr)

(iii) McLeod gauge.

(iv) Thermal conductivity or Pirani gauge.

(v) Ionization gauge.

(vi) Kundsen gauge.

Manometers:

1. Principle:

All manometers work on the effect of hydrostatic pressure exerted by a liquid column.In
manometer unknown pressure is determined by balancing it against some known pressureor
vacuum.

2. Construction and Working:

U-tube Manometer:

The U-tube manometer consists of glass U-tube partially filled with a suitable liquid like water,
mercury etc. One of the arms or legs of the manometer is connected to unknownpressure tap to be
measured, while other connected to other pressure tap or it is left open to atmosphere.

When there is difference of pressure between two arms of the manometer, liquid levels inthe two
arms do not match. This level difference in the two arms of the manometer representsdifferential pressure
(P1 - P2). The static balance equation for Fig.(a) can be written as:

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P2 − P1 = hg

Where,

‘h’ - height difference

‘ρ’ - mass density of manometric liquid

If the fluid over manometric liquid has appreciable density, then static balance equationcan be written as
:

P2 − P1 = h( m −  T .L )g

Where

‘h’ - height difference

‘ρm’ - mass density of manometric liquid

‘ρT.L’ - mass density of manometric liquid

Limitations:

➢ In the U – tube manometer, the application of pressure causes the liquid in one leg to go down
while that in the other leg goes up, so there is no fixed reference.

➢ This tends to make the measurement of the height more difficult than it would be if one surface
could be maintained at some fixed level.

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Applications:

The applications of manometers are as follows:

➢ They are used to sense differential pressure in venturimeters and other flow meters.

➢ They are used as level devices to sense liquid heads.

➢ They are used as primary standards for pressure measurements.

Bourdon tube pressure gauge:

➢ The bourdon tube is the most frequently used pressure gauge because of its simplicity and rugged
construction.

➢ It covers ranges from 0 -15 psig to 0 – 100,000 psig, as well as vacuum from 0 to 30 inches of
mercury.

a) Basic principle:

➢ When an elastic transducer (bourdon tube in this case) is subjected to a pressure, it deflects.
This deflection is proportional to the applied pressure when calibrated.

b) Construction:

The main parts of this instrument are as follows:

1. An elastic transducer, that is, bourdon tube which is fixed and open at one end to receive the
pressure which is to be measured. The other end of the bourdon tube is free and closed. The
cross – section of the bourdon tube is elliptical. The bourdon tube is in a bent form that look
like a circular disc.

2. To the free end of the bourdon tube is attached an adjustable link, which is in turn connected
to a sector and pinion as shown in figure given below.

3. To the shaft of the pinion is connected a pointer which sweeps over a pressure calibrated scale.

4. Bourdon tubes are generally made in three shapes: (i) c – type, (ii) helical type, and (iii) spiral
type.

c) Working:

1. The pressure to be measured is connected to the fixed open end of the bourdon tube.

2. The applied pressure acts on the inner walls of the bourdon tube. Due to the applied pressure,
the bourdon tube tends to change in cross – section from elliptical to circular. This tends to
straighten the bourdon tube causing a displacement of the free closed end of the bourdon tube.

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 3. This displacement of the free closed end of the bourdon tube is proportional to the applied
pressure. As the free end of the bourdon tube is connected to a link – sector – pinion
arrangement, the displacement is amplified and converted to a rotary motion of the pinion.

4. As the pinion rotates, it makes the pointer to assume a new position on a pressure calibrated
scale to indicate the applied pressure directly. As the pressure in the case containing the
bourdon tube is usually atmospheric, the pointer indicates gauge pressure.

d) Adjustments:

Basically there are two types of adjustments of the bourdon tube:

i) Multiplication adjustment:
1. Because of compound stresses developed in the bourdon tube, actual travel is non
– linear in nature. However, for a small travel of the tip this can be considered to
be linear and parallel to the axis of the link.

2. The small linear tip movement is matched with a rotational pointer movement. This
is known as ‘multiplication’ and can be adjusted by adjusting the length of the lever.

3. A shorter lever gives larger rotation for the same amount of tip travel.

(ii) Angularity:

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 1. When the approximately linear motion of the tip is converted to a circular motion
with the link lever and pinion attachment, a one to one correspondence between
them may not occur and a distortion results.

2. This is known as ‘angularity’. Angularity can be minimized by adjusting the length

of the link.

e) Advantages:

Following are the advantages of bourdon tubes:

1. Cost is low.

2. They have simple construction.

3. They have been time – tested in applications.

4. These tubes are available in a wide variety of ranges, including very high ranges.

5. They are adaptable to transducer designs for electronic instruments.

6. They allow high accuracy, especially in relation to cost.

7. They are safe even for high pressure measurement.

8. They can be modified to give electrical outputs.

f) Applications:
They are used to measure medium to very high pressures.

Mc Leod gauge:

1. The McLeod gauge is used for measuring very low pressures down to one hundred – thousandth
of an inch of mercury (or 10 m bar down to 10-3 m bar).

2. The McLeod gauge amplifies pressure by compressing a gas into small volume. The pressure of
the compressed gas is then measured with a mercury manometer.

i. Principle:

➢ A known volume gas is compressed to a smaller volume whose final value provides an indication
of the applied pressure. The gas used must obey Boyle’s law given by:

P1V1 = P2V2

Where, P1 = pressure of gas at initial condition (applied pressure)

P2 = pressure of gas at final condition

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 V1 = volume of gas at initial condition

V2 = volume of gas at final condition

Initial condition = before compression

Final condition = after compression

➢ A known volume gas (with low pressure) is compressed to a smaller volume (with high pressure),
and using the resulting volume and pressure, the initial pressure can be calculated. This is the
principle behind the McLeod gauge operation.

ii. Construction:

The main parts of a McLeod gauge are as follows:

1. A reference column with a reference capillary tube. The reference capillary tube has a point
called zero reference point.

2. This reference column is connected to a bulb and measuring capillary and the place of
connection of the bulb with the reference column is called as cut off point.

3. Below the reference column and the bulb, there is a mercury reservoir operated by a piston.

iii. Operation:

The McLeod gauge is operated as follows:

1. The pressure to be measured (P1) is applied to the top of the reference column of the McLeod
gauge as shown in figure.

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2. The mercury level in the gauge is raised by operating the piston to fill the volume as shown by the
dark shade in the figure above. When this is the case (condition – 1) the applied pressure fills the
bulb and the capillary.
3. Now against the piston is operated so that the mercury level in the gauge increases. When the
mercury level reaches the cut-off point, a known volume of gas (V1) is trapped in the bulb and
measuring capillary tube.

4. The mercury level is further raised by operating the piston so that the trapped gas in the bulb and
measuring capillary tube are compressed. This is done until the mercury level reaches the “zero
reference point” marked on the reference capillary (condition – 2).

5. In this condition, the volume of gas in the measuring capillary tube is read directly be a scale
besides it. That is, the difference in height “h” of the measuring capillary and the reference
capillary becomes a measure of the volume (V2) and the pressure (P2) of the trapped gas.

6. Now as V1, V2, and P2 are known, the applied pressure P1 can be calculated using Boyle’s law
given by:

P1V1 = P2V2

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 Let the volume of the bulb from the cut off point upto the beginning of the measuring capillary
tube = V

Let area of cross – section of the measuring capillary tube = a

Let height of measuring capillary tube = h c

Therefore,

Initial volume of gas entrapped in the bulb plus measuring capillary tube = V1 = V + ahc

When the mercury has been forced upwards to reach the zero reference point in the reference
capillary, the final volume of gas = V2 = ah

Where, h = height of the compressed gas in the measuring capillary tube

P1 = applied pressure of gas (unknown)

P2 = pressure of gas at final condition, that is, after compression

= P1 + h

Therefore, P1V1 = (P1 + h) ah

P1V1 = P1ah + ah2

P1 = ah2/(V1 – ah)

Since ‘ah’ is very small when compared to V1, it can be neglected.

Therefore, P1 = ah2/V1

Thus the applied pressure is calculated using the McLeod gauge.

iv. Advantages:
1. It is independent of the gas composition.

2. It serves as a reference standard to calibrate other low pressure gauges.

3. A linear relationship exists between the applied pressure and height ‘h’.

4. There is no need to apply corrections to the McLeod gauge readings.

v. Limitations:
1. The gas whose pressure is to be measured should obey the Boyle’s law.

2. Moisture traps must be provided to avoid any considerable vapour into the gauge.

3. It measures only on a sampling basis.

4. It cannot give a continuous output.

23
 vi. Applications:

Used to measure vacuum pressure

Measurement of fluid flow

Classification of flow measuring devices:

1. Variable head or differential meters

(i) Orifice plates/meter

(ii) Venturi meter

(iii) Pitot tubes

(iv) Elbow taps

(v) Weirs

2. Variable area meters

(i) Rotameters

(ii) Cylinder and piston type flow meters

Orifice meter:

i. Basic principle:

1. When an orifice plat is placed in a pipe carrying the fluid whose flow rate of flow is to be
measured, the orifice plate causes a pressure drop which varies with the flow rate.

2. This pressure drop is measured using a differential pressure sensor and when calibrated
this pressure drop becomes a measure of flow rate. The flow rate is given by,

C d A2 2(P1 − P2 )
Qa =
A 
2 
1 −  2 
 A1 

Where, Qa = Flow rate

Cd = Discharge coefficient

A1 = Cross sectional area of pipe

A2 = Cross sectional area of orifice

P1 , P2 = Static pressures

24
ii. Construction:

The main parts of an orifice meter are as follows:

1. A stainless steel orifice plate which is held between flanges of a pipe carrying the fluid
whose flow rate is being measured.

2. It should be noted that for a certain distance before and after the orifice plate fitted between
the flanges, the pipe carrying the fluid should be straight in order to maintain laminar flow
conditions.

3. Openings are provided at two places 1 and 2 for attaching a differential pressure sensor as
shown in figure given below.

iii. Working:

1. The details of the fluid movement inside the pipe and orifice plate have to be understood.

2. The fluid having uniform cross section of flow converges into the orifice plate’s opening
in its upstream. When the fluid comes out of the orifice plat’s opening, its cross section is
minimum and uniform for a particular distance and then the cross section of the fluid starts
diverging in the downstream.

25
 3. At the upstream of the orifice, before the converging of the fluid takes place, the pressure
of fluid (P1) is maximum. As the fluid starts converging to enter the orifice opening, its
pressure drops. When the fluid comes out of the orifice opening, its pressure is minimum
(P2) and this minimum pressure remains constant in the minimum cross section area of
fluid flow at the downstream.

4. This minimum cross sectional area of the fluid obtained at downstream from the orifice
edge is called “VENA – CONTRACTA”.

5. The differential pressure sensor attached between points 1 and 2 records the pressure
difference (P1 – P2) between these two points which becomes an indication of the flow rate
of the fluid through the pipe when calibrated.

iv. Limitations:
1. Pressure recovery at downstream is poor, that is, overall loss varies from 40 to 90% of the
differential pressure.

2. In the upstream, straightening vanes are a must to obtain laminar flow conditions.

3. Gets clogged when suspended fluids flow.

4. The coefficient of discharge is low.

5. The orifice plate gets corroded and due to this, after sometime, inaccuracy occurs.
Moreover the orifice plate has low physical strength.

6. The vena – contracta length depends on the roughness of the inner wall of the pipe and
sharpness of the orifice plate. In certain cases, it becomes difficult to tap the minimum
pressure (P2) due to the above factor.

v. Applications:

1. The concentric orifice plate is used to measure flow rates of pure fluids and has wide
applicability as it has been standardized.

2. The eccentric and segmental orifice plates are used to measure flow rates of fluids
containing suspended materials such as solids, oil mixed with water and wet stream.

Venturi meter:

i. Basic principle:

When a venturi meter is placed in a pipe carrying the fluid whose flow rate is to be measured, a
pressure drop occurs between the entrance and throat of the venturimeter. This pressure drop is measured

26
using a differential pressure sensor and when calibrated, this pressure drop becomes a measure of flow
rate.

ii. Construction:

The following are the main parts and areas of a venturi meter:

1. The entry of the venture is cylindrical in shape to match the size of the pipe through which
fluid flows. This enables the venture to be fitted to the pipe.

2. After the entry, there is a converging conical section with an included angle of 19 0 to 230.

3. Following the converging section, there is a cylindrical section with a minimum area called
as the throat.

4. After the throat, there is a diverging conical section with an included angle of 5 0 to 150.

5. Openings are provided at the entry and throat of the venturimeter for attaching a differential
pressure sensor as shown in figure given below.

iii. Working:

1. The fluid whose flow rate is to be measured enters the entry section of the venturimeter
with a pressure P1.

2. As the fluid from the entry section of the venturimeter flows into the converging section,
its pressure keeps on reducing and attains a minimum value P2 when it enters the throat.
That is, in the throat, the fluid pressure P2 will be minimum.

3. The differential pressure sensor attached between the entry and throat section of the
venturimeter records the pressure difference (P1 – P2) which becomes an indication of the
flow rate of the fluid through the pipe when calibrated.

4. The diverging section has been provided to enable the fluid to regain its pressure and hence
its kinetic energy. Lesser the angle of the diverging section, greater is the recovery.

iv. Advantages:
1. Less chances of getting clogged with sediments.

2. Coefficient of discharge is high.

3. Its behaviour can be predicted perfectly.

4. Can be installed vertically, horizontally or inclined.

5. It causes low permanent pressure loss.

27
 6. It is widely used for high flow rates.

7. It is available in very large pipe sizes.

8. It has well – known characteristics.

9. It is more accurate over wide flow ranges than orifice plates or nozzles.

10. It can be used at low and high beta ratios.

v. Limitations:

1. They are large in size and hence where space is limited, they cannot be used.

2. Expensive initial costs, installation and maintenance.

3. Require long laying length. That is, the venturimeter has to be proceeded by a straight pipe
which is free from fittings and misalignments, to avoid turbulence in flow for satisfactory
operation. Therefore, straightening vanes are a must.

4. Cannot be use in pipes below 7.5cm diameter.

5. It has the limitation of a lower reynolds number of 150,000 (some data is however
available down to a reynolds number of 50,000 in some sizes).
28
 vi. Applications:

1. It is used where high pressure recovery is required.

2. Can be used for measuring flow rates of water, wastes, gases, suspended solids, slurries
and dirty liquids.

3. Can be used to measure high flow rates in pipes having diameters in the range of few
meters.

Pitot tubes:

i.Basic principle:

1. The operating principle of a pitot tube is based on the fact that when a solid body is kept centrally
and stationary in a pipe line with a fluid streaming down, the velocity of the fluid starts diminishing
due to the presence of the body till it is reduced to zero directly in front of the body. This point is
known as stagnation point.

2. Pitot tubes are used mainly for the measurement of fluid velocity.

ii. Construction:

1. A probe is a device used for point pressure measurement in a flowing fluid. This point
measurement of pressure is done to determine fluid flow rate.

2. The most popular probe is the “pitot tube” which is one of the total pressure probes. The pitot tube
measures the combined pressure (static pressure + impact pressure).

3. The pitot tube has one impact opening and eight static openings as shown in figure given below.
The impact opening is provided to sense impact pressure and the static openings are provide to
sense static pressure.

29
iii.Working:

1. The pitot tube is introduced in the fluid flow area where point pressure details is required (which
is an indirect measure of flow rate).

2. The pressure in the outer tube is the static pressure in the line. The total pressure in the inner tube
is greater than static pressure. That is, total pressure is the static pressure plus the impact pressure.

3. The differential pressure (Pi – Ps) is measured using a differential pressure sensor. This differential
pressure becomes a measure of flow rate at that point where the Pitot tube is present in the flowing
fluid.

iv.Advantages:

1. Causes no pressure loss in the flowing fluid.

2. Costs less and very easy to install.

3. These tubes have no process loss.

4. Some types can be easily removed from the pipe line.

v.Applications:

30
 Pitot tubes are extensively used in laboratories to measure velocity, pressure and flow rates of
fluids.

Variable area flow meters:

i.Basic principle:

1. In the differential head flow meters described above, the flow restriction is of fixed size and the
pressure differential across it changes with the flow rate.

2. But in the variable area flow meters the size of the restriction is adjusted by an amount necessary
to keep the pressure differential constant when the flow rate changes and the amount of adjustment
required is proportional to the flow rate.

Rotameters:

ii.Construction:

The main parts of a rotameter are as follows:

1. A tapered transparent glass tube graduated to read flow rate directly.

2. A float whose density is greater than that of the flowing fluid. The float diameter is such that it
completely blocks the inlet of the tapered transparent glass tube.

iii.Working:

31
 1. As the fluid whose flow rate is being measured comes and touches the bottom portion of the float
blocking the inlet of the tapered transparent glass tube, the float starts to rise when the following
happens:

[pressure of flowing fluid + fluid buoyancy] is greater than [downward pressure due to weight
of float].

2. When the float rises, an annular space is created between the periphery of the float and the inner
wall of the tapered transparent glass tube. This annular space which is a concentric opening through
which the fluid passes to the other side of the instrument keeps on increasing until the following
happens:

{pressure of flowing fluid} + {fluid buoyancy} = {downward pressure due to weight of the
float}.

When this happens, the float stops rising further and stops at a particularly position, that is, the
float comes to equilibrium.

3. Thus, increase in flow rate will make the float to rise higher and vice versa. That is, the position
of the float becomes a direct indication of flow rate. Hence the tapered transparent glass tube can
be graduated suitably by proper calibration to get a direct indication of flow rate by nothing the
position of the float with respect to the graduations on the tapered tube.

4. The instrument has to be designed in such a manner so that the effects of changing viscosity and
density are minimized leaving only the pressure of the flowing fluid as a variable.

iv.Advantages:

The advantages of a rotameter are:

1. Its cost is relatively low.

2. Rotameters have good rangeability.

3. It is good for metering small flows.

4. It is easily equipped with alarm switches, or transmitting devices.

5. It handles wide variety of corrosives.

6. Viscosity – immense floats are available in rotameter.

7. It can be used in some light slurry services.

8. It has low pressure drop requirement.

32
v.Applications:

1. Can be used to measure flow rates of corrosive fluids.

2. Particularly useful to measure low flow rates.

Level measuring instruments

➢ In many industrial processes, liquid level measurements are made to infer the quantity of
liquidstored in a container or a vessel.

➢ Liquid level measurement and/or control is important because it affects both pressure and rate of
flow of liquid flowing in and out of the container.

Level measurement methods:

(A) Direct Methods:

1. Based on direct visual observation:

2. Based on determining the position of detecting member which rides on materialsurface:

3. Buoyancy methods:

(B) Indirect or Inferential Methods:

1. Based on the hydrostatic head developed by liquid:

2. Based on attenuation of radioactive radiations.

3. Based on utilization of electrical properties like capacitance, conductance and resistivitythat

depend upon level.

4. Based on reflection of waves from the liquid surface.

Direct level measurement:

In these methods, level of liquid is directly measured on the scale. Direct methods usevarying
liquid level as the means of level measurement.

Hook gauge:
33
Construction:

1. Hook gauge consists of about 114 inch diameter wire bent into a U-shape withone arm longer than
the other as shown in Fig. 20.

2. The shorter arm is pointed with 60° taper,while the longer arm is attached to a slider having a
vernier scale which moves over a main scaleand indicates the level.

Working:

1. In this method, the hook is pushed below the liquid surface and gradually raiseduntil the taper
point is just about to break through the surface.
2. In this position it is clamped andlevelreading is taken on the scale. This method is useful for
measuring liquid level in open tanks.

Importance of composition analysis

➢ Continuous production processes involve the conversion of raw materials into a singlefinalproduct.
➢ For obtaining uniform, satisfactory finished product quality, it is necessary tomeasureand control
the physical and chemical properties of the constituent materials. This iscalledas Composition
Analysis of the product.

Classification of composition analysis methods

(A) Methods based on Atomic or Molecular or Crystalline Characteristics of Matter:

34
 1. Absorption Spectroscopy.

2. Emission Spectroscopy.

3. Mass Spectroscopy.

4. X-Ray Diffraction Method.

(B) Methods based on Measurement of following Physical Characteristics of Matter:

1. Thermal Conductivity

2. ElectrolyticConductivity.

3. Combustibility.

4. Magnetic Susceptibility (O2Analyzer).

5. Physical Absorption Characteristics (Chromatography).

6. Refractive Index.

7. Density or Specific Gravity.

8. Viscosity.

9. Acidity or Alkalinity (pH).

Infra-Red (I.A.) Absorption Spectroscopy:

1. The .I.R. portion of the electromagnetic spectrum extends from 7500 A˚ to 107 A˚. Themanner in
which electromagnetic radiationinteracts with matter is a function of the wavelength of the
radiation.

2. I.R. radiations in the wavelength range of 30,000 to 105A° havesufficient energy to excite
molecular vibration and hence they can be used for detecting thepresence of molecularspecies.

3. The frequency of vibration is a function of the weights of theatomic elements bound in the
molecule and the strength of the molecular bond.

4. Thischaracteristic vibration frequency results in an IRabsorption band which indicates

thepresence of a particular molecular bond.

For example, C-H bond is excited at 34,000 A˚,while C-O pond is excited at 47,000 A˚.

Non-dispersive I.R. Analyzer (NDIR):

35
1. The NDIR analyzer consists of a source of IRradiation, a means of restricting the wavelength range
of source radiation, IR-detector,a sample chamber, a means of modulating the source radiation and
the signal processing unit.

2. Fig. 23 shows the optical system of IR spectrometer. The IR radiations are produced byan
electrically heated resistor and the IR-beam passes to a plane mirror, then to parabolicmirror, which
then falls on the slit through the sample to be analyzed.

3. The beam then passesto the collimating mirror, where it is made parallel. This parallel beam passes
through theprism, where it is refracted.

4. The wavelength mirror reflects the beam back through the prismwhere it is once again refracted.
The beam is then reflected by the collimating mirror to aplane mirror and then to slit.

5. Finally the' beam is reflected to the thermocouple where thebeam intensity is measured.

6. The wavelength of IR radiation received by the thermocouple ISdetermined by the angle of setting
of the wavelength mirror. Thus by rotating the prism, theintensity of each wavelength can be
measured.

7. Finally the graph of IR-wavelength versus theintensity is plotted which is called as IR-
spectrogram. Every component has got characteristicspectrogram.

8. The concentration of various components of the sample substance can bedetermined from the
amount of absorption at any wavelength which is based on the Beer'slaw given by
36
 1 I
C= log 10 0
x Ix

Where,

C = Concentration of substance

α= Absorption factor of substance

x = sample thickness along the optical path

I0 =Intensity of the beam before passing through the sample

Ix= Intensity of the beam after passing through the sample.

9. These constants are found by trial calibration of the spectrometer, using a knownsample of
substance with known concentration. Thus concentration may be determined at anyone wavelength
in the spectrogram.

Applications:

1.To monitor CO2in the manufacture of ethylene oxide and ammonia.

2. Acetylene monitoring in the manufacture of acetylene and vinyl chloride.

3. CO2 monitoring in steel converting and in the heat-treatment process.

4. CO2 monitoring in greenhouses, in storage facilities and during formation.

5. Monitoring of explosive and toxic hazards.

6. Monitoring of stack gases for pollution control and flue gas monitoring forcombustion
efficiency..

pH Measurement

Electronic pH measurement system consists of a measuring electrode, a referenceelectrode and a

potential measuring system.

Measuring electrode:

1. We describe the glass electrode as the pH measuring electrode.The glass electrode is made of a
thin glass membrane of special composition that coulddeveloppotential proportional to difference
in H+ ion concentration of liquid on either sidesof the membrane.
2. The glass envelope has pH sensitive glass membrane at the bottom thatcontainsconstant pH buffer
solution.

37
 3. This electrode is dipped in the measuring solution sothatpotential is developed at the platinum
electrode which is proportional to the pH of themeasuringsolution. This potential is measured by
completing the circuit with the referenceelectrode

Reference electrode:

1. We describe calomel electrode as the reference electrode for pHmeasurement.

2. Calomel electrode has glass envelope that contains glass tube which contains calomel(mercury
and mercurous chloride) solution along with platinum wire dipped in it.
3. This tube issurrounded by KCI solution that slowly diffuses or leaks into process liquid through
liquidjunction provided by asbestos fibre.
4. Due to this the reference electrode developes constantpotential.

Potential measuring system:

1. The measuring and the reference electrode together forman electrolytic cell whose output equals
the sum of the voltage produced by the twoelectrodes.

2. This net voltage is applied to a null-balance millivolt potentiometer in which the slide wirecan be
calibrated in terms of the pH of the measuring liquid.

3. Since the electrodeoperation depends upon the electrical resistivity of glass, change in
temperature may causeerror in pH reading.

38
 4. To compensate for changes in temperature of the measuring solution,temperature compensating
resistance is included in the circuit which is immersed in thesolution.

5. The resistance of thisresistor changes with temperature. Fig. 26 shows theelectronic circuit for pH
measurement along with temperature compensating resistor.

Measurement of Humidity (Dampness)

➢ The amount of water vapour contained in air or gas is called as humidity.

➢ This humidityaffectshuman comforts and many industrial processes as in the case of chemical
industries,garmentindustries, paper industries, food industries, leather industries,
pharmaceuticalindustries,precision equipment manufacturing, etc.

➢ Hence; study of humidity is important.Letusdefine some common terms related to humidity

measurement.

Instruments to measure humidity:

The three main instruments used to measure humidity are listed below.

1. Sling psychrometer
2. Absorption hygrometer
3. Dew point meter

Sling psychrometer

This instrument is used to measure both the dry bulb and wet bulb temperatures at atime. These
temperatures are a measure ofhumidity content inair.

Construction:

The main parts of the instrumentare as follows:

1. The instrumentframe which holds the thermometers.

39
 2. Mercury in glass thermometer whose sensing bulb is bare to directly contactthe air and to measure
the temperature which is called as the dry-bulb temperature.

3. Mercury in glass thermometer whose sensing bulb is covered with a cotton or muslin wick made
wet (moistened) with pure water. This sensing bulbcoveredwith the moistenedcotton wick is made
to contact the air andthe temperature indicated by this thermometer is calledas the wet bulb-
temperature.

4. The instrument frame carrying the thermometers is covered by a glass casing.

5. .A swivel handle is attached to the frame-glass casing - thermometer arrangementtoensure that the
air at the wet bulb is always in immediate contact with thewet wick.

6. When a thermometer bulb is directly exposed to an air-water vapour mixture, thetemperature

indicated by the thermometer is the dry-bulb temperature.

7. When a thermometer bulb is covered by a constantly wet wick and if the bulbcovered by the wet
wick is exposed to air-water vapour mixture, the temperatureindicated by the thermometer is the
wet bulb temperature.

Working:

1. In order to measure the dry bulb and wet bulb temperatures, the psychrometerframe - glass
covering - thermometer arrangement is rotated at 5 m/s to 10 m/s toget the necessary air motion.

2. The thermometer whose bulb is bare contacts the air and indicates the dry bulbtemperature. .

3. At the same time, the thermometer whose bulb is covered with the wet wick comesin contact with
the air and when this air passes on the wet wick present on the bulbof the thermometer, the moisture
40
 present in the wick starts evaporating and a coolingeffect isproduced at the bulb. Now the
temperature indicated by the thermometeristhe wet bulb temperature which will naturally be lesser
than the dry bulb temperature·

Applications:

1. It is used for checking humidity level in air-conditioned rooms and installations.

2. It is used to set and check hair hygrometers.

3. It is used in the measurement range of 0 to 100% RH.

4. It is used for measuring wet bulb temperatures between 0°C to 180°C.

Limitations:

1. The measured medium is disturbed due to the act of measurement.

2. It cannot be used in automation requirement situations.

3. It cannot be used for continuous recording purposes.

4. If the wick is covered with dirt, the wick will become stiff and its water absorbingcapacity will
reduce.

Measurement of viscosity

➢ The fluid flow rate through any part depends on many factors of which, viscosity of the fluid is an
important one. By knowing viscosity, the flow rate of the fluid can be analysed.

➢ Further it should be noted that the viscosity of a fluid is affected by the temperature, that is, lower
the temperature, higher will be the viscosity and vice – versa.

➢ In spray painting applications, the viscosity of the fluid should be maintained at a particular level.

List of instruments used to measure viscosity:

Thefollowing are the important viscometers.

1. Capillary tube viscometer.

2. Effuxviscometers

3. Falling sphere viscometer.

4. Rotating cylinder viscometer.

Basic principle of Effux viscometers

41
 ➢ The time taken for a known quantity of fluid at constant temperature to flow througha standard
capillary or orifice or nozzle is noted.

Redwood viscometer

Construction:

The main parts of a Redwood viscometer are as follows:

1. A cylinder which holds the test liquid whose viscosity is to be determined,

2. A level indicator fitted on the inner walls of the cylinder to fill 50 ml test liquid easily,the
temperature controlled bath.

3. A standard orifice and ball valve.

4. Collecting flask, heating coil, stirrer and,

5. Thermometers permanently fitted on the cylinder and bath to measure temperatureconstantly.

Operation

1. Viscosity depends on temperature, that is, higher the temperature, lower theviscosity. Hence at
what temperature the viscosity of the liquid is required hasto be decided first. Let us assume that
the viscosity of the liquid is required attemperature X˚C.

42
2. Now the temperature in the temperature controlled bath is brought to X˚C byapplying heat using
the electric heating coil.

3. Wait until heat transfer takes place from the bath to the cylinder containingthe test liquid whose
viscosity is being measured. The stirrer is rotated frequentlyto distribute the heat proportionately
in the bath.

4. When both the temperatures shown by the thermometers immersed in the test liquid and the bath
are X˚C, the orifice isopened by lifting the ball valve andthe time taken for 50 ml of test liquid to
flow through the orifice is noted.

5. This time taken by 50 ml of the test liquid at X˚C to flow through the orificebecomes a measure
of viscosity of the liquid at X˚C in Redwood seconds; ThusViscosityis measured using a Redwood
viscometer.

Year & Questions

S.No
Regulation
MAY 2004 & 1 Name any two temperature measuring instruments.
R2001 2 Name any two fluid flow rate measuring instruments.
NOVEMBER 1 Define absolute and kinematic viscosity. Give their units.
2004 & R2001 2 Explain Seeback effect.
MAY 2005 & 1 What are the commonly used thermocouples?
R2001 2 State the various composition measuring instruments.
MAY 2006 & 1 Name any two characteristics of measuring instruments and define them.
R2001 2 What are variable head meters? Give examples.
NOVEMBER 1 What is the principle of operation of a thermocouple?
2006 & R2001 2 Define sensitivity and dead zone.
MAY 2007 & 1 List the static and dynamic characteristics of process control instruments.
R2001 2 What is the principle behind working of a thermocouple
NOVEMBER 1 List the static characteristics of process control instrurnents.
2007 & R2001 2 Explain Peltier effect.
NOVEMBER 1 Mention any two flow measuring devices.
2007 & R2004 2 Indicate standard temperature scales with their ranges.
MAY 2008 & 1 How humidity of gases can be measured?
R2004 2 Using electrical conductivity, which parameters can be measured?
1 State law of intermediate temperatures.

43
 NOVEMBER List the dynamic characteristics of instruments.
2
2008 & R2004

MAY 2009 & 1 What is Seebeck effect?

R2004 2 Distinguish between 'Variable Head' and 'Variable area' flow meters.
MAY 2010 & 1 What is the range of optical pyrometer?
R2004 2 Name some head meters used in flow systems.
16 Marks:

1. Define the terms accuracy, repeatability, span, sensitivity and errors. (6) NOVEMBER 2008 &
R2004

2. Discuss on temperature measurement using radiation pyrometers with a neat sketch.

(8)NOVEMBER 2004 & R2001

(or)

Write about the principle of temperature measurement using radiation and optical pyrometers.
(4)NOVEMBER 2006 & R2001

(or)

Explain the principle and working of an optical pyrometer with a neat sketch. (10)NOVEMBER
2008 & R2004

3. Discuss the properties and types of industrial thermocouples withrange of operation and
advantages. Also, explain the uses and desirable properties of thermal wells. (16) MAY 2006 &
R2001.

(or)

Explain the operation of thermocouple. (6)MAY 2008 & R2004

4. Compare resistance thermometers with thermocouples. (4)NOVEMBER 2006 & R2001

5. With a neat sketch, explain the working of a bimetallic thermometer, material of construction and
range of operation (16) NOVEMBER 2007 & R2001

(or)

Explain the working of a bimetallic thermometer, material of construction and range of operation
with neat sketches. (10)NOVEMBER 2007 & R2004

6. Explain the working principle of vapour pressure thermometer. (8)NOVEMBER 2007 & R2004

7. Explain with principle, the range of application of thermometers commonlyMAY 2010 & R2004

44
8. With a neat sketch, explain the principles and uses of a micromanometer. (8)MAY 2006 & R2001

9. Explain with a neat sketch, the principle of operation of a bourden tube pressure gauge. (8)MAY
2006 & R2001

10. Write about the principle of measurement of low pressure. (8)NOVEMBER 2006 & R2001

(or)

With a neat sketch, explain the working of McLeod gauge and its range of operation.
(6)NOVEMBER 2007 & R2004

11. What are the methods used for measuring high pressure. (6)MAY 2007 & R2001

12. Indicate a method for measuring pressure of a corrosive fluid. (10)MAY 2007 & R2001

13. With a neat sketch, Discuss the principle and working of any one instrument used for the
measurement of the following parameters: (i) humidity of gases (ii) Vacuum PressureMAY 2009
& R2004

14. Discuss briefly the instruments used in measuring pressure in process industries. (8)MAY 2010 &
R2004

15. Explain flow measurement using venture with a neat sketch. (8)NOVEMBER 2004 & R2001

16. Write short notes on the following: (i) Venturimeter (ii) Orificemeter (iii) PitotNOVEMBER 2006
& R2001

17. Compare variable area and variable head meters in industrial flow metering with their principles
of operation. (16)MAY 2007 & R2001

18. With a neat sketch, describe the working of rotameter. Explain their design and calibration.
(8)NOVEMBER 2008 & R2004

19. Classify and briefly explain the important methods available for liquid level
measurement.NOVEMBER 2007 & R2001

20. Explain level measurement in open vessels using bubbler system with a neat sketch.
(8)NOVEMBER 2007 & R2004, NOVEMBER 2008 & R2004

21. With a neat diagram, explain the principle involved and operation of : (i) pH measuring instruments
and (ii) Composition measuring instruments. (8+8)MAY 2004 & R2001

22. Explain in detail the measurement of pH. (8)MAY 2005 & R2001

23. Describe the principle and operation of concentration measurement. (8)MAY 2008 & R2004

45
24. Explain any one method of composition analysis. (8)MAY 2008 & R2004

25. Describe the principle of measurement of the following quantities: (i) Viscosity (ii) pH. (10)MAY
2008 & R2004

26. With a neat sketch, Discuss the principle and working of any one instrument used for the
measurement of the following parameters: (i) Viscosity of liquid (ii) pHMAY 2009 & R2004

27. Explain the principle and working of instruments used in process industries for measuring
Viscosity. (8)MAY 2010 & R2004

28. Write in detail the measurement of humidity of gases. (8)MAY 2005 & R2001.

46