Irrigation Engineering

Irrigation Engineering - Science of artificial application of water

to the land, in accordance with crop requirements is known as irrigation.

Important Definitions
Crop period- It is the time period elapsed from the instant of
sowing to the instant of harvesting.
Base period - It is the time between the first watering of a crop at
the time of sowing to its last watering before harvesting. Frequently of
irrigation/rotation period It is the time interval between two
consecutive watering to a crop.
 Delta- Total depth of water (in mm) required by a crop to come to
maturity is called its delta. It may be expressed in hectare-metre also.
Duty of water- It is the number of hectares of land irrigated for full
growth of a given crop by supply of 1 m3 /sec of water continuously
during the entire base period of the crop.

Approximate value of delta and duty for various crops

Crop Delta Duty
Rice 1200 mm 775 hectare/cu mec
Sugar cane 1200 mm 730 hectare/cu mec
Wheat 400 mm 1800 hectare/cu mec
Fodder 225 mm 2000 hectare/cu mec
Cotton 500 mm 1400 hectare/cu mec

QUALITY OF IRRIGATION WATER

Sediment - When fine sand from water is deposited on sandy soils, the
fertility is improved. If the sediment has been derived from eroded areas, it
may reduce the fertility.

Soluble Salts- Excess salt is harmful for plant. Amount in excess of 700
ppm is harmful to some plants and more than 2000 ppm is injurious to all
crops.
Low salinity (C1 ) – 100 to 250 micro mhos/cm at 25°C
Medium salinity (C2 ) – 250 to 750 micro mhos/cm at 25°C
High salinity (C3 ) – 750 to 2250 micro mhos/cm at 25°C
Very high salinity (C4 ) – more than 2250 micro mhos/cm at 25°C

Toxic Elements in Water

Boron concentration
Above 0.3 ppm toxic to certain plants
Above 0.5 ppm dangerous to nuts and deciduous fruits, cotton is moderately
tolerant , dates, asparagus tolerant

Above 4 ppm no plant can tolerate.

Sodium Ions to other Cations (Sodium Absorption Ratio)

• Low sodium water (S1) → SAR = 0 to 10
• Medium sodium water (S2) → SAR = 10 to 18
• High sodium water (S3) → SAR = 18 to 26
• Very high sodium water (S4) → SAR > 26

➢ S1 – Can be used for irrigation on all soils.

➢ S2 – Not suitable for fine textured soil.
➢ S3 – May be used with good drainage, high leaching, gypsum addition,
etc.
➢ S4 – Not suitable
Bacterial Contamination
It is harmful, only if the crop is eaten without being cooked. Contaminated
wastewater can be used for crops like cotton which are processed after
harvesting.
 CANAL IRRIGATION SYSTEM

Irrigation canal - Irrigation canal is an artificial channel that is the main

waterway that brings irrigation water from a water source to the area to be
irrigated.

Classification of Canals based on Different Factors

Canals are classified into different types based on factors which are as
follows :
• Based on the nature of the supply source
• Based on functions
• Based on the type of boundary surface soil
• Based on the financial output
• Based on discharge
• Based on canal alignment pickup weir or a barrage.
 Based on the Nature of Supply Source
1. Permanent Canal
2. Inundation Canal

1. Permanent Canal- A Permanent canal is a type of canal in which

water is available throughout the year. This type of canal is generally
directed from a permanent source of supply water bodies. A Permanent
canal can also be called as a perennial canal.

2. Inundation Canal
Inundation canal is a type of canal in which water is available only during the
flood periods. These type of canals are taken off from rivers to control the
water level in rivers during floods. A canal head regulator is provided to
regulate the flow into the canal.

Based on Functions of Canal

1. Irrigation canal
2. Power canal
3. Feeder canal
4. Carrier canal
5. Navigation canal
1. Irrigation canal
A canal aligned along the boundaries of cultivatable areas in order to supply
water for the purpose of agriculture is said to be an irrigation canal.

2. Power canal
A canal constructed especially for the generation of hydraulic power is
termed as power canal.
3. Feeder canal
As the name says, a feeder canal is constructed to feed two or more other
canals or branch canals.

4. Carrier canal
A carrier canal is multi-function canal which serves the purposes of both
irrigation canal and feeder canal. It means the carrier canal feeds the other
canals as well as provides water for direct irrigation.
5. Navigation canal
A canal which is constructed especially for navigational purposes is known as
navigation canal.
The water level required in a navigation canal is generally a lot higher to
accommodate large ships, vessels, etc.

Based on Type of Boundary Surface of Canal

1. Alluvial canal
2. Non-alluvial canal
3. Rigid Surface canal
1. Alluvial canal
If the canal is excavated in alluvial soils such as silt, sand, gravel, etc. then it
is said to be an alluvial canal.
2. Non-alluvial canal
If the boundary surface of the canal is of non-alluvial soils such as loam, clay,
rock, etc. then it is said to be a non-alluvial canal.

3. Rigid Surface canal

Rigid surface canals also come under non-alluvial canals but here the
boundary surface of the canal is lined artificially with a hard layer of lining
material such as cement, concrete, stones, etc.
Based on Financial Output
1. Protective canal
2. Productive canal
1. Protective Canal
Protective canals are relief work projects which are constructed to protect a
particular area from the shortage of water. The main objective of a
protective canal is to fulfil the requirements of cultivators during the period
of famine.

2. Productive Canal
Productive canals are those which will produce enough revenue for its
maintenance and running costs and also to recover the initial investment
made on the construction of the canal.
Based on Discharge
1. Main canal
2. Branch canal
3. Major distributary canal
4. Minor distributary canal
5. Field canal

1. Main canal- The main canal takes off directly from a river or reservoir. It
carries water in large amounts to feed the branch and distributary canals.
Due to conveying of very high discharge through the main canal it is not
recommended to do direct irrigation from it.
2. Branch Canal- The branch canal takes off from main canals at regular
intervals. These canals supply water to major and minor distributary canals.
The discharge of the branch canal is generally over 5 m3 /sec.
In the case of branch canals also, direct irrigation is not recommended unless
their water carrying capacity is very low.
3. Major Distributary Canal- Major distributary canal takes off from the
branch canal or in some cases from the main canal.
They supply water to minor distributaries and field channels. A canal is said
to be major distributary when its discharge lies between 0.25 to 5 m3 /sec.
4. Minor Distributary Canal
Minor distributary canal takes off from major distributaries and sometimes
directly from branch canals depending upon the discharge of canals. Their
discharge is generally below 0.25 m3 /sec.
These canals supply water to the field channels.
5. Field Channels
Field channels also known as watercourses are small channels excavated by
cultivators in the irrigation field. These channels are fed by the distributary
canals and branch canals through canal outlets.

Based on Canal Alignment

1. Ridge canal
2. Contour canal
3. Side-slope canal

1. Ridge Canal
A canal aligned along the ridgeline or watershed line of an area is said to be
ridge canal or watershed canal. Since it is running at the peak altitude of the
area, irrigation on both sides of the canal up to a larger extent of the area is
possible. There is no interception of natural drains on ridge lines hence, no
cross drainage works are required for this type of canal.
2. Contour Canal
A canal aligned roughly parallel to the contours of the area is called a contour
canal. This type of canal can be used in hilly regions. Since it is parallel to the
contour line, the ground on one side of the canal is higher and hence
irrigation is possible only on the other side of the canal. A contour canal has
to pass the drainage and hence cross drainage works are required to be
provided.

3. Side-slope Canal
A canal aligned nearly perpendicular to the contour of the area is called a
side-slope canal. It is located neither on the ridgeline nor on the valley line
but is approximately in between them. It is parallel to the natural drainage
line and hence no cross drainage works are required. The bed slope of side
slope canal is very steep

Losses of water in canals

When water continuously flow through a canal, losses takes place due to
seepage, deep percolation and evaporation. These losses should be properly
accounted for , otherwise lesser quantity of water will be available for
agriculture. Water loss in canal can be broadly classified under 3 categories.
a) Evaporation loss
b) Transpiration loss(through the weeds and vegetation on the bank of the
channels)
c) Percolation loss
(a)Evaporation Losses
The loss due to evaporation is generally a small percentage of total loss in
canal. It hardly exceeds 1 to 2 % of total water entering into a canal. The
evaporation loss depends upon
(i) Climatic factor :-Temperature, humidity, wind velocity etc.
(ii) Canal factors:-Water surface area ,water depths, velocity of flow etc.
(b) Transpiration Loss
There is a little loss of water through the plants, vegetation and the weeds
on the bank of the canal. However this can be controlled by keeping the
banks clean from the growth of vegetation and the weeds.
(c) Percolation losses
Percolation loss constitute major portion of loss in a canal. The seepage
losses are due to
➢ Permeability of the soil in the bed and on the banks of the canal
➢ The depth of the water in the canal
➢ Velocity of the flow
➢ Amount of silt in the water
➢ Temperature of water
➢ Age of the canal
➢ The depth of the ground water

HYDRAULIC JUMP
Hydraulic jump is the jump of water that takes place when a
supercritical flow changes into a subcritical flow.
The loss of head in hydraulic jump is given by
HL =

where y1 = depth of water on upstream

y2 = depth of water on upstream
 CANAL FALLS
Whenever the available natural ground slope is steeper than the
designed bed slope of the channel, the difference is adjusted by
constructing vertical ‘falls’ or ‘drops’.

Types of falls
1. Ogee falls: Water is gradually led down by providing convex and
concave curves.
2. Rapids fall : Long slopes of 1 : 15 to 1 : 20 with boulder facings are
known as rapids. They are quite satisfactory but very expensive
and hence became obsolete.

3. Trapezoidal Notch Falls: It consists of a number of trapezoidal

notches across the channel with a smooth entrance and a flat
circular lip projecting downstream from each notch. There will be
neither drawdown nor heading up of water, as the channel
approaches the fall. Now these are obsolete since simpler,
economical and better modern falls are developed.
 4. Well type/cylinder/syphon well falls: This type consists of two
wells, one for inlet and another for outlet connected by a pipe.
The down stream well is necessary in the case of falls greater than
1.8 m and for discharge greater than 0.29 cumecs. This type of
falls are very effective for larger drops with smaller discharges.

5. Simple vertical drop (Sarda type fall):

1. It is a raised crest fall with a vertical impact
2. It is simple and economical
3. In it canal drops into a water cushion.
6. Straight Glacis Falls:
A. In this type, a straight glacis, sloping generally at 2 : 1, is provided
after a raised crest.
B. It is suitable up to 60 cumecs discharge and 1.5 m drop.
7. Montague Type Fall: In this type the straight glacis is replaced by a
parabolic glacis to improve energy dissipation.

8. EnglisH fall or Baffle fall : For as straight glacis type fall a baffle
platform and a baffle wall are added.

9. Vertical drops – suitable up to 15 cumecs and upto 1.5 m fall.

10. Straight glacis – suitable for discharge up to 60 cumecs and 1.5 m
fall.
Baffle fall – suitable for all discharge and more 1.5 m fall.
Well type – suitable for high drops and low discharge
MISCELLANEOUS CANAL STRUCTURES
Canal falls, head regulators, canal escapes, metering flumes, canal
outlets and modules are canal structures.

Function of a head regulator

1. To control the supplies entering the off-take channel
2. To control silt entry into off-take channel
3. To serve as a meter for measuring discharge

Functions of a cross regulator are:

1. Control canal irrigation system.
2. When the water level in the main canal is low, it helps in heading up
water.
3. It helps in absorbing fluctuations in various sections of the canal
system.
4. It is often combined with a road bridge and a fall, if required.

Canal Escapes
A canal escape is a side channel constructed to remove surplus water
from an irrigation channel.
Note- Weir type and sluice type (regulator type) canal escapes are in
use.

Canal Outlet or Module

It is a small structure built at the head of the water course so as to
connect it with a minor or a distributary channel.
Types of outlets (modules)
1. Non-modular: Open sluice and drowned pipe outlets.
2. Semi-modules or flexible-modules: Pipe outlets venture flume and
orifice semi-module
3. Rigid-module or modular outlets: Cribbs module.

Performance of modules is judged from:

1. Flexibility: It is the ratio of the rate of change of discharge of the
outlet to the rate of change of discharge of the distributary channel.
2. Proportionality: The outlet is said to be proportional when the rate of
change of outlet discharge equals the rate of change of channel
discharge. (F = 1).
If F > 1, hyper proportionality, If F < 1, sub-proportionality
3. Setting: The ratio of the depth of the sill level of the outlet below the
FSL of the distributary, to the full supply depth of the distributary, is
known as setting.
4. Sensitivity: It is defined as the ratio of the rate of change of discharge
through the outlet to the rate of change of water level of the
distributary, referred to the normal depth of the channel. For rigid
modules the sensitivity is zero, since discharge is fixed.

Cattle crossings- In remote village areas where no major

movement is involved arrangements are made so that cattle, bullock
carts, etc., can cross the canal. Such crossings are called cattle crossings.

Bed bars- Bed bars are masonry or concrete toe wall like structure
constructed along unlined canal, so as to serve as permanent reference
marks, and thus to indicate the correct alignment and theoretical bed
levels of the canal.
Drip Irrigation - Drip irrigation involves placing tubing with emitters on
the ground along side the plants. The emitters slowly drip water into
the soil at the root zone