CHAPTER 3 – LEARNING, PERCEPTION, AND ATTRIBUTION

Acquiring a complex set of sophisticated skills is a result of change that comes from learning. Learning maybe
defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge due to experience. When a person behaves differently
from what has previously did, it can be said that there is change in the person’s behavior. With change there is learning. A
change in behavior happens due to any or both of the following:

1. Learning
2. Other causes such as drugs, injury, disease or maturation.

Behavioral change starts with the mind when it accepts new knowledge. Sometimes the mind orders the body to
show some signs of behavior that is different from the previous ones.

Theories of Learning

Eminent researchers have developed theories that help explain the learning process. These theories consist of
the following:

1. Classical conditioning may be defined as type of learning in which a stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke
response that was originally evoked by another stimulus. A stimulus is something that incites action. An example
of stimulus is demotion in rank.
2. Operant Conditioning maybe defined as a type of learning where people learn to repeat behaviors that bring them
pleasurable outcomes and to avoid behaviors that lead to uncomfortable ones.
3. Social Leaning maybe defined as the process of observing the behavior of others, recognizing its consequences,
and altering behavior as a result.

How is Social Learning Achieved?

Social learning may be done in three ways namely:

1. By observing what happens to other people

2. Be being told about something
3. Through direct experience

PERCEPTION

Perception maybe defined as the process by which people select, organize, interpret, retrieve, and respond to
information from their environment.

Factors Influencing Perception

1. The perceiver
2. The target
3. The situation

The Perceiver

The person who perceives that target is the perceiver. His perception of the target is influenced by factors that are
unique to him like the following:

1. His past experiences

2. His needs or motives
3. His personality
4. His values and attitudes

A person’s experiences in the past have some bearing on his current perceptions.
The Target

The person, object, or event that is perceived by another person is the target. Perception may be modified by the
following factors which are typical characteristics of targets:

1. Contrast
2. Intensity
3. Figure-ground separation
4. Size
5. Motion
6. Repetition or novelty

If during the perception process, the target is situated in a background of contrast, perception is affected. For instance
when a boy is seen with five girls, perception is different when he is with five boys.

Intensity varies in terms of brightness, color, depth, and sound, and because of these perception is affected.

The figure and its ground is a factor that may affect visual perception. The figure is the one being looked, and the
ground is the background against it stands.

The size of the target is also a factor that may affect perception. Those that are smaller or larger than the average are
perceived differently.

Size matters even in the placement of company personnel. A research undertaken some years ago indicates that the
taller persons have better chances of promotion.

In terms of motion, moving objects are perceived differently from stationary objects.

Repetition affects perception. For example, when a person is repeatedly exposed to a particular music, that person
gets used to it and chances are, he becomes fond of it.

The Situation

Perception is also affected by the surrounding environment.

The situational factors that affect perception are time, work setting, and social setting.

As people’s mood vary from time to time perception also varies depending on the time the perception is made.

Workplace differ from one another. As perception also differs from workplace to workplace. For instance, the
playing of soft music maybe perceived favorably in certain workplace but differently regarded in another workplace.

The social setting is also a factor in perception. For instance, a person will perceive a Caucasian girl as very
pretty when both of them are situated in remote place in the Philippines. However, when both are situated in a movie
studio in Hollywood, U.S.A, the girl will be perceived differently.

ATTRIBUTION

There are other theories that may be useful for a better understanding of human behavior. One of these refers to
attribution.

Attribution theory is the process by which people ascribe causes to the behavior they perceive.

Common Attribution Errors

When people makes attempt to determine the causes of other people’s behavior, errors commonly happen. These
errors may be classified into the following types:

1. The fundamental attribution errors

 2. The self-serving bias

The fundamental attribution errors refer to the tendency to underestimate the influence of external factors and
overestimate the influence of internal or personal factors in the behavior of others.

The self-serving bias is that type of attribution error whereby people tend to attribute their achievements to their good
inner qualities, whereas they attribute their failures to adverse factors within the environment.

Factors That influence Attribution

When people try to determine the cause of a person’s behavior, whether the cause is internal or external, some
factors influence such effort. The factors refer to the following:

1. Distinctiveness – the consideration given on how consistent a person’s behavior is across different situations.
2. Consensus – this refers to the likelihood that all those facing the same situation will have similar responses.
3. Consistency – this refers to the measure whether an individual responds the same way across time.

SHORTCUTS USED IN FORMING IMPRESSIONS OF OTHERS

For whatever reason, we form impression of others. Those impressions constitute a database in our minds that
will later use as aides in making decisions concerning others.

People’s perception may or may not be accurate, but accuracy is not a serious concern when opinions are found.
Most often, people are not even aware that they are already judging others.

Most often, these shortcuts produce misleading conclusions and this should serve as a warning to people who
make use of these shortcuts. These shortcuts refer to the following:

1. Selective perception happens when a person

selectively interprets what he sees on the basis
of his interest, background, experience, and
attitudes.
2. Halo effect occurs when one attribute of a
person or situation is used to develop an overall
impression of the person or situation. Halo refers
to that ring of light just above the head of a saint
as we see it in pictures of paintings. The halo
signifies that everything above the saint is holy.
A person’s outstanding achievement in one area
may serve as his halo and he may be perceived
as outstanding in other endeavors as well. Of
course, this is not always true.
3. Contrast effects – a beautiful lady may be
declared as the third prettiest in certain place,
but she could be number one in another place.
Contrast effects may be defined as evaluations
of a person’s characteristics that are affected by
comparisons with other people recently
encountered who rank higher or lower on the
same characteristics.
4. Projection is attributing one’s own thoughts,
feelings or motives to another. It is likely to occur
in the interpretation stage of perception.
5. Stereotyping refers to judging someone on the
basis of one’s perception of the group to which
that person belongs